Uses,traditional management,perception of variation and preferences in ackee (Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig) fruit traits in Benin: implications for domestication and conservation

Background

Changing lifestyles have recently caused a severe reduction of the gathering of wild food plants. Knowledge about wild food plants and the local environment becomes lost when plants are no longer gathered. In Central Europe popular scientific publications have tried to counter this trend. However, detailed and systematic scientific investigations in distinct regions are needed to understand and preserve wild food uses. This study aims to contribute to these investigations.

Methods

Research was conducted in the hill country east of Graz, Styria, in Austria. Fifteen farmers, most using organic methods, were interviewed in two distinct field research periods between July and November 2008. Data gathering was realized through freelisting and subsequent semi-structured interviews. The culinary use value (CUV) was developed to quantify the culinary importance of plant species. Hierarchical cluster analysis was performed on gathering and use variables to identify culture-specific logical entities of plants. The study presented was conducted within the framework of the master's thesis about wild plant gathering of the first author. Solely data on gathered wild food species is presented here.

Results

Thirty-nine wild food plant and mushroom species were identified as being gathered, whereas 11 species were mentioned by at least 40 percent of the respondents. Fruits and mushrooms are listed frequently, while wild leafy vegetables are gathered rarely. Wild foods are mainly eaten boiled, fried or raw. Three main clusters of wild gathered food species were identified: leaves (used in salads and soups), mushrooms (used in diverse ways) and fruits (eaten raw, with milk (products) or as a jam).

Conclusions

Knowledge about gathering and use of some wild food species is common among farmers in the hill country east of Graz. However, most uses are known by few farmers only. The CUV facilitates the evaluation of the culinary importance of species and makes comparisons between regions and over time possible. The classification following gathering and use variables can be used to better understand how people classify the elements of their environment. The findings of this study add to discussions about food heritage, popularized by organizations like Slow Food, and bear significant potential for organic farmers.     

Nucleotide polymorphism at the alcohol dehydrogenase locus of pocket gophers, genus Geomys

Using the strictly neutral model as a null hypothesis, we tested for deviations from expected levels of nucleotide polymorphism at the alcohol dehydrogenase locus (Adh-1) within and among four species of pocket gophers (Geomys bursarius major, G. knoxjonesi, G. texensis llanensis, and G. attwateri). The complete protein-encoding region was examined, and 10 unique alleles, representing both electromorphic and cryptic alleles, were used to test hypotheses (e.g., the neutral model) concerning the maintenance of genetic variation. Nineteen variable sites were identified among the 10 alleles examined, including 9 segregating sites occurring in synonymous positions and 10 that were nonsynonymous. Several statistical methods, including those that test for within-species variation as well as those that examine variation within and among species, failed to reject the null hypothesis that variation (both within and between species of Geomys) at the Adh locus is consistent with the neutral theory. However, there was significant heterogeneity in the ratio of polymorphism to divergence across the gene, with polymorphisms clustered in the first half of the coding region and fixed differences clustered in the second half of the gene. Two alternative hypotheses are discussed as possible explanations for this heterogeneity: an old balanced polymorphism in the first half of the gene or a recent selective sweep in the second half of the gene.      

Evidence that biosynthesis of phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, and triacylglycerol occurs on the cytoplasmic side of microsomal vesicles

Experiments were performed to localize the hepatic microsomal enzymes of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and triacylglycerol biosynthesis to the cytoplasmic or lumenal surface of microsomal vesicles. Greater than 90 percent of the activities of fatty acid-CoA ligase (EC 6.2.1.3), sn-glycerol 3-phosphate acyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.15), lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase, diacylglycerol acyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.20), diacylglycerol cholinephosphotransferase (EC 2.7.8.2), and diacylglycerol ethanolaminephosphotransferase (EC 2.7.8.1) was inactivated by proteolysis of intact microsomal vesicles. The phosphatidic acid phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.4) was not inactivated by any of the protease tested. Under conditions employed, <5 percent of the luminal mannose-6-phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.9) activity was lost. After microsomal integrity was disrupted with detergents, protease treatment resulted in a loss of >74 percent of the mannose-6-phosphatase activity. The latency of the mannose-6-phosphatase activity was not affected by protease treatment. Mannose-6-phosphatase latency was not decreased by the presence of the assay components of several of the lipid biosynthetic activities, indicating that those components did not disrupt the microsomal vesicles. None of the lipid biosynthetic activities appeared latent. The presence of a protease-sensitive component of these biosynthetic activities on the cytoplasmic surface of microsomal vesicles, and the absence of latency for any of these biosynthetic activities suggest that the biosynthesis of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and triacylglycerol occurs asymmetrically on the cytoplasmic surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. The location of biosynthetic activities within the transverse plane of the endoplasmic reticulum is of particular interest for enzymes whose products may be either secreted or retained within the cell. Phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and triacylglycerol account for the vast majority of hepatic glycerolipid biosynthesis. The phospholipids are utilized for hepatic membrane biogenesis and for the formation of lipoproteins, and the triacylglycerols are incorporated into lipoproteins or accumulate within the hepatocyte in certain disease states (14). The enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of these glycerolipids (Scheme I) from fatty acids and glycerol-3P have all been localized to the microsomal subcellular fraction (12, 16, 29, 30). Microsomes are derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and are sealed vesicles which maintain proper sidedness. (11, 22). The external surface of these vesicles corresponds to the cytoplasmic surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. Macromolecules destined for secretion must pass into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (5, 23). Uncharged molecules of up to approximately 600 daltons are able to enter the lumen of rat liver microsomes, but macromolecules and charged molecules of low molecular weight do not cross the vesicle membrane (10, 11). Because proteases neither cross the microsomal membrane nor destroy the permeability barrier of the microsomal vesicles, only the enzymes and proteins located on the cytoplasmic surface of microsomal vesicles are susceptible to proteolysis unless membrane integrity is disrupted (10, 11). By use of this approach, several enzymes and proteins have been localized in the transverse plane of microsomal membranes (11). With the possible exception of cytochrome P 450, all of the enzymes and proteins investigated were localized asymmetrically by the proteolysis technique (11). By studies of this type, as well as by product localization, glucose-6-phosphate (EC 3.1.3.9) has been localized to the luminal surface of microsomal vesicles (11) and of the endoplasmic reticulum (18, 19). All microsomal vesicles contain glucose-6-phosphatase (18, 19) which can effectively utilize mannose-6-P as a substrate, provided the permeability barrier of the vesicles has been disrupted to allow the substrate access to the active site located on the lumenal surface (4). An exact correspondence between mannose- 6-phosphate activity and membrane permeability to EDTA has been established (4). The latency of mannose-6-phosphatase activity provides a quantitative index of microsomal integrity (4.) Few of the microsomal enzymes in the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and triacylglycerol have been solubilized and/or purified, and little is known about the topography of these enzymes in the transverse or lateral planes of the endoplasmic reticulum. An asymmetric location of these biosynthetic enzymes on the cytoplasmic or lumenal surface of microsomal vesicles may provide a mechanism for regulation of the glycerolipids to be retained or secreted by the cell, and for the biogenesis of asymmetric phospholipid bilayers. In this paper, we report investigations on the localization of all seven microsomal enzymes (Scheme I) in the biosynthesis of triacylglycerol, phosphatidylcholine, and phosphatidylethanolamine, using the protease technique with mannose-6-phosphatase serving as luminal control activity. The latency of these lipid biosynthetic enzymes was also investigated, using the latency of mannose-6-phosphatase as an index of microsomal integrity.     

Adding Content to Contacts: Measurement of High Quality Contacts for Maternal and Newborn Health in Ethiopia,North East Nigeria,and Uttar Pradesh,India

BackgroundFamilies in high mortality settings need regular contact with high quality services, but existing population-based measurements of contacts do not reflect quality. To address this, in 2012, we designed linked household and frontline worker surveys for Gombe State, Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Uttar Pradesh, India. Using reported frequency and content of contacts, we present a method for estimating the population level coverage of high quality contacts.ConclusionsMeasuring content of care to reflect the quality of contacts can reveal missed opportunities to deliver best possible health care.     

Effects of species biology on the historical demography of sharks and their implications for likely consequences of contemporary climate change

Climate variation is an important factor shaping the demographic histories of many marine species, though impacts likely differ depending on species life history, habitat preferences and ecology. Investigating how species responded to historic climate fluctuations may provide critical insights into a species’ response to current climate change. Despite their ecological diversity, shark species share many similar life history characteristics and may be especially vulnerable to anthropogenic and climate impacts. We compared patterns of genetic variability, mismatch distributions and demographic reconstructions from coalescence approaches among temperate and tropical shark species with differing ecological characteristics, to investigate the effect of the past glaciation cycles on population abundance. Genetic diversity at two mitochondrial DNA regions (ND2 and control region) was assayed in four North Pacific species, Pacific spiny dogfish, Pacific sleeper sharks, salmon shark, and bluntnose sixgill shark. In addition, control region sequences acquired from GenBank for five shark species [tope shark (California/Australia), white shark (California), blacktip shark (eastern and western Gulf of Mexico), lemon shark (Bahamas), and whale shark] were analyzed. General patterns in genetic diversity, mismatch analyses and Bayesian skyline plots supported our hypothesis that species biology affected the impact of climate variation on demographic history. Consequently, our results suggest that effects of contemporary climate change on sharks may be to some degree predictable from species biology, distribution, habitat and the impact of past climate events.