Calabaria and the phytogeny of erycine snakes

Two major subgroups of erycine snakes, designated Charina and Eryx , are delimited with a cladistic analysis of 75 morphological characters. The hypotheses of species relationships within the two clades are ( reinhardtii ( bottae, trivirgata )) and ( colubrinus, conicus, elegans, jayakari, muelleri, somalicus ( miliaris ( tataricus ( jaculus, johnii )))), respectively. This pattern of grouping obtains without assuming multistate character additivity. At least 16 synapomorphies indicate that reinhardtii is an erycine and that it is the sister lineage of the ( bottae, trivirgata ) clade. Calabaria and Lichanura are synonymized with Charina for reasons of taxonomic efficiency, and to emphasize the New-Old World geographic distribution of the three species in that assemblage. Further resolution of Eryx species relationships is required before Gongylophis (type species conicus ) can be recognized.     

Effect of adrenaline, glucagon and insulin on glucose metabolism in carp: influence of temperature]

In carps living since 4 months at 6, 20 or 30 degrees C, epinephrine or glucagon injections produce increase in plasma glucose but affect only slightly liver glycogen: lower is the temperature, slower and longer are the effect. Insulin injection induces more or less delayed hypoglycaemia according to temperature acclimatization; decrease in blood glucose is accompanied by a slight increase of glycogen in all tissues at 6 degrees C and on the contrary by a very strong depletion of this polysaccharide in liver and even heart at 20 and 30 degrees C.     

‘Mild mitochondrial uncoupling’ induced protection against neuronal excitotoxicity requires AMPK activity

The preconditioning response conferred by a mild uncoupling of the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψ_m) has been attributed to altered reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mitochondrial Ca^2 + uptake within the cells. Here we have explored if altered cellular energetics in response to a mild mitochondrial uncoupling stimulus may also contribute to the protection. The addition of 100 nM FCCP for 30 min to cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) induced a transient depolarization of the Δψ_m, that was sufficient to significantly reduce CGN vulnerability to the excitotoxic stimulus, glutamate. On investigation, the mild mitochondrial ‘uncoupling’ stimulus resulted in a significant increase in the plasma membrane levels of the glucose transporter isoform 3, with a hyperpolarisation of Δψ_m and increased cellular ATP levels also evident following the washout of FCCP. Furthermore, the phosphorylation state of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) (Thr 172) was increased within 5 min of the uncoupling stimulus and elevated up to 1 h after washout. Significantly, the physiological changes and protection evident after the mild uncoupling stimulus were lost in CGNs when AMPK activity was inhibited. This study identifies an additional mechanism through which protection is mediated upon mild mitochondrial uncoupling: it implicates increased AMPK signalling and an adaptive shift in energy metabolism as mediators of the preconditioning response associated with FCCP-induced mild mitochondrial uncoupling.