Sequence detectors as a basis of grammar in the brain

Summary Grammar processing may build upon serial-order mechanisms known from non-human species. A circuit similar to that underlying direction-sensitive movement detection in arthropods and vertebrates may become selective for sequences of words, thus yielding grammatical sequence detectors in the human brain. Sensitivity to the order of neuronal events arises from unequal connection strengths between two word specific neural units and a third element, the sequence detector. This mechanism, which critically depends on the dynamics of the neural units, can operate at the single neuron level and may be relevant at the level of neuronal ensembles as well. Due to the repeated occurrence of sequences, for example word strings, the sequence-sensitive elements become more firmly established and, by substitution of elements between strings, a process called auto-associative substitution learning (AASL) is triggered. AASL links the neuronal counterparts of the string elements involved in the substitution process to the sequence detector, thereby providing a brain basis of what can be described linguistically as the generalization of rules of grammar. A network of sequence detectors may constitute grammar circuits in the human cortex on which a separate set of mechanisms establishing temporary binding and recursion can operate.     

über die H?henanpassung vonCrotophaga ani undTyrannus melancholicus in den Anden Kolumbiens

Zusammenfassung An Trauertyrann,Tyrannus melancholicus Vieillot, 1819 (Tyrannidae) und Ani,Crotophaga ani L., 1758 (Cuculidae) wird geprüft, wie weit in verschiedenen Höhenlagen der Anden Kolumbiens Veränderungen einzelner Körpermerkmale auftreten, und ob diese bestehenden Klimaregeln entsprechen und als Anpassungen an unterschiedliche Höhenlagen gedeutet werden können.An 114 Trauertyrannen und 138 Anis aus fünf verschiedenen Höhenstufen zwischen 0 und 2300 m über dem Meere wurden jeweils 15 Einzelmerkmale (Maße und Gewichte) registriert.Beide Vogelarten zeigten ein mit der Höhe deutlich ansteigendes Körpergewicht und entsprechend zunehmende Körperlänge.Für Herz und Lungen wurde eine im Verhältnis zum Körpergewicht stark überproportionale Gewichtszunahme mit der Höhe festgestellt.Spannweite und Länge der Flügel wuchsen ungefähr der Körpergröße entsprechend. Die Flächenbelastung blieb mit steigender Höhe gleich, was bei Berücksichtigung der Dimensionsunterschiede eine überproportionale Flügelflächenzunahme in Vergleich zum Gewichtsanstieg bedeutet.Der Schwanz wurde beim Trauertyrann schwach unter-, beim Ani leicht überproportional mit zunehmender Höhe länger.Der Schnabel wurde beim Trauertyrann im gleichen Verhältnis wie der Körper vergrößert, hingegen war er beim Ani in den Stufen IV und V sogar etwas kürzer als auf Meeresniveau.Das Beinskelett (Femur, Tibiotarsus, Tarsometatarsus) der Trauertyrannen wurde mit zunehmender Höhe im Vergleich zum Körper schwach unterproportional verlängert. Das Verhältnis der Einzelknochen änderte sich dabei nicht. Dagegen nahm es beim Ani kaum zu, und sein Tarsometatarsus wurde mit zunehmender Höhe relativ kürzer.Humerus und Ulna wuchsen mit der Höhe gleichmäßig, doch schwach unterproportional zur Körpergröße. Durch überproportionale Zunahme der längsten Schwungfeder glich sich dies Defizit an der Gesamtflügellänge wieder aus.Die meisten Veränderungen lassen sich als Anpassungen an die mit der Höhe abnehmenden Klimafaktoren Temperatur und Luftdruck deuten. So entspricht die Größenzunahme mit abnehmender Temperatur derBergmannschen, die relative Verkürzung der Beine derAllenschen, die überproportionale Zunahme der Herzgewichte derHesseschen Klimaregel. Vergrößerung von Herz und Lungen können als Adaption an notwendig höhere Stoffwechselleistung bei höherem Wärmeverlust, Fliegen in dünnerer Luft und geringeren Sauerstoffgehalt der Atemluft gedeutet werden.Das geringe Alter der Populationen in größeren Höhen und die enge Nachbarschaft zu solchen tieferer Lagen machen es sehr unwahrscheinlich, daß die gefundenen Unterschiede genetisch fixiert sind. Eine Aufgliederung der beiden Arten in Vertikalrassen bleibt daher außer Betracht.

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The adaptation to different altitudes byTyrannus melancholicus undCrotophaga ani in the Colombian Andes

Summary Two species of birds, the tropical kingbird,Tyrannus melancholicus Vieillot (1819) and the smooth-billed ani,Crotophaga ani L., 1758 were studied to determine whether or not some of their morphological characters showed adaptation to different altitudes in the Colombian Andes.Fifteen different measurements and weights were taken from each of 114 tropical kingbirds and 138 anis collected at five different elevations between 0 and 2300 m.Both species showed a clear increase in body weight and a corresponding increase in body length with altitude.The weights of heart and lungs increased at a much higher rate than did body weight.Spread and lenght of wings showed a nearly proportional increase with body length. No significant change was observed in the wing load. This means a relative increase in wing area compared with the increase in body weight.InTyrannus tail length increased rather more slowly with altitude than did body length, in the ani rather more rapidly.InTyrannus the bill increased proportionally with body length whereas in the ani the bill was even shorter at the higher levels IV and V than at sea level.In the kingbird's hind limb a general increase in femur, tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus size was observed but no significant changes in their ratio could be detected. The same was not true in the ani: its hind limb increased less and its tarsometatarsus became relatively shorter with increasing altitude.Humerus and ulna increased with equal ratios with altitude but rather underproportionally. This was balanced by a larger increase of the longest wing feather.Most of the changes observed may be adaptive to decreasing temperature and atmospheric pressure with increasing altitude. Increasing size with decreasing temperature is in accordance withBergmanns rule, the relative decrease in leg length confirmsAllens, the increase of heart weightHesses eco-geographic rule. Increased weight of heart and lungs may be adaptive to increased heat loss, higher energy consumption during flight in thinner air, and lower oxygen concentration at higher altitudes.The higher altitudes have been settled by anis and tropical kingbirds only recently, and are in close proximity to the lower altitude ranges. Thus it seems unlikely that the variations of the characters between the different levels have a genetic basis, and although these variations may be as large as between verticals subspecies, such taxonomic distructions are not concluded in this instance.

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Meinem verehrten Doktorvater, Herrn Professor Dr.G. Niethammer, in dankbarer Erinnerung     

Synaptic Plasticity in Neural Networks Needs Homeostasis with a Fast Rate Detector

Hebbian changes of excitatory synapses are driven by and further enhance correlations between pre- and postsynaptic activities. Hence, Hebbian plasticity forms a positive feedback loop that can lead to instability in simulated neural networks. To keep activity at healthy, low levels, plasticity must therefore incorporate homeostatic control mechanisms. We find in numerical simulations of recurrent networks with a realistic triplet-based spike-timing-dependent plasticity rule (triplet STDP) that homeostasis has to detect rate changes on a timescale of seconds to minutes to keep the activity stable. We confirm this result in a generic mean-field formulation of network activity and homeostatic plasticity. Our results strongly suggest the existence of a homeostatic regulatory mechanism that reacts to firing rate changes on the order of seconds to minutes.     

Activation of innate defense against a paramyxovirus is mediated by RIG-I and TLR7 and TLR8 in a cell-type-specific manner

Recognition of pathogens by the innate immune system is mediated by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which recognize specific molecular structures of the infectious agents and subsequently trigger expression of genes involved in host defense. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) represent a well-characterized class of membrane-bound PRRs, and the RNA helicase retinoic acid inducible gene I (RIG-I) has recently been described as a novel cytoplasmic PRR recognizing double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). Here we show that activation of signal transduction and induction of cytokine expression by the paramyxovirus Sendai virus is dependent on virus replication and involves PRRs in a cell-type-dependent manner. While nonimmune cells relied entirely on recognition of dsRNA through RIG-I for activation of an antiviral response, myeloid cells utilized both the single-stranded RNA sensing TLR7 and TLR8 and dsRNA-dependent mechanisms independent of RIG-I, TLR3, and dsRNA-activated protein kinase R to trigger this response. Therefore, there appears to be a large degree of cell-type specificity in the mechanisms used by the host to recognize infecting viruses.     

Brain mechanisms linking language and action

For a long time the cortical systems for language and actions were believed to be independent modules. However, as these systems are reciprocally connected with each other, information about language and actions might interact in distributed neuronal assemblies. A critical case is that of action words that are semantically related to different parts of the body (for example, 'lick', 'pick' and 'kick'): does the comprehension of these words specifically, rapidly and automatically activate the motor system in a somatotopic manner, and does their comprehension rely on activity in the action system?     

Molecular dynamics studies on the aggregation of Y-shaped fluoroalkanes

Molecular dynamics (MD) calculations have been performed on the aggregation of clusters with up to 128 Y-shaped perfluoroalkylated molecules of the type C10F20[C7H15]2 (Y-A/128) and C10H20[C7F15]2 (Y-B/128) as well as mixed clusters (Y-A/64+Y-B/64) using the AMBER 5 program. The effect of the segregation tendency of the chemically different parts and the influence of the steric repulsion due to the wedge shape of the molecules on the structure formation have been studied. The results have been analyzed by snapshots, radial atom pair distribution functions, orientational correlation functions as well as diffusion coefficients and are compared with the corresponding findings on clusters of alkanes and perfluoroalkanes. Electronic supplementary material to this paper can be obtained by using the Springer LINK server located at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s008940020092y.     

Moving Focus from Weight to Health. What Are the Components Used in Interventions to Improve Cardiovascular Health in Children?

Introduction

Obesity in childhood impacts on many areas of the child’s current and future health, including their cardiovascular health. To date many attempts have been made to design interventions to tackle excess childhood weight but with limited success. We aimed to establish the components common to interventions in children that improve cardiovascular health parameters.

Methods

We searched the following databases: EMBASE 1974-week 3 November 2014, Ovid Medline 1946 Present, and PsychINFO 1967-Present for studies reporting interventions in healthy young people under the age of 18. Included interventions had to contain an education component and have been carried out in a community, school, or clinical setting. Papers had to report on at least one of the pre-specified CVD risk parameters and at least one non-biological outcome from knowledge, attitudes or behaviours.

Results

We retrieved 2451 papers, from which 12 studies (18 papers) of 3046 participants were included. From the selected papers we identified four component themes; Health Behaviours, Self-Concept, Practical and Cognitive Tools, and Intervention Characteristics. The subcomponents that made up these themes were fairly consistent across the studies analysed although the studies varied in their duration, settings and children with which they were carried out. Nine of the studies were able to bring about positive change in at least one biological and one non-biological aspect of child cardiovascular health.

Conclusion

The component themes identified here were common to intervention studies that had success in improving parameters of cardiovascular health. We suggest that the focus of childhood health interventions be moved from weight onto cardiovascular health parameters and that future interventions use the lessons learned by their predecessors to incorporate those components that are associated with successful interventions.