Palmitoylation-dependent estrogen receptor alpha membrane localization: regulation by 17beta-estradiol

A fraction of the nuclear estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) is localized to the plasma membrane region of 17beta-estradiol (E2) target cells. We previously reported that ERalpha is a palmitoylated protein. To gain insight into the molecular mechanism of ERalpha residence at the plasma membrane, we tested both the role of palmitoylation and the impact of E2 stimulation on ERalpha membrane localization. The cancer cell lines expressing transfected or endogenous human ERalpha (HeLa and HepG2, respectively) or the ERalpha nonpalmitoylable Cys447Ala mutant transfected in HeLa cells were used as experimental models. We found that palmitoylation of ERalpha enacts ERalpha association with the plasma membrane, interaction with the membrane protein caveolin-1, and nongenomic activities, including activation of signaling pathways and cell proliferation (i.e., ERK and AKT activation, cyclin D1 promoter activity, DNA synthesis). Moreover, E2 reduces both ERalpha palmitoylation and its interaction with caveolin-1, in a time- and dose-dependent manner. These data point to the physiological role of ERalpha palmitoylation in the receptor localization to the cell membrane and in the regulation of the E2-induced cell proliferation.     

Temporal requirement of Hoxa2 in cranial neural crest skeletal morphogenesis

Little is known about the spatiotemporal requirement of Hox gene patterning activity in vertebrates. In Hoxa2 mouse mutants, the hyoid skeleton is replaced by a duplicated set of mandibular and middle ear structures. Here, we show that Hoxa2 is selectively required in cranial neural crest cells (NCCs). Moreover, we used a Cre-ERT2 recombinase system to induce a temporally controlled Hoxa2 deletion in the mouse. Hoxa2 inactivation after cranial NCC migration into branchial arches resulted in homeotic transformation of hyoid into mandibular arch skeletal derivatives, reproducing the conventional Hoxa2 knockout phenotype, and induced rapid changes in Alx4, Bapx1, Six2 and Msx1 expression patterns. Thus, hyoid NCCs retain a remarkable degree of plasticity even after their migration in the arch, and require Hoxa2 as an integral component of their morphogenetic program. Moreover, subpopulations of postmigratory NCCs required Hoxa2 at discrete time points to pattern distinct derivatives. This study provides the first temporal inactivation of a vertebrate Hox gene and illustrates Hox requirement during late morphogenetic processes.     

Merlin/NF-2 mediates contact inhibition of growth by suppressing recruitment of Rac to the plasma membrane

Introduction of activated p21-activated kinase (PAK) is sufficient to release primary endothelial cells from contact inhibition of growth. Confluent cells display deficient activation of PAK and translocation of Rac to the plasma membrane at matrix adhesions. Targeting Rac to the plasma membrane rescues these cells from contact inhibition. PAK's ability to release human umbilical vein endothelial cells from contact inhibition is blocked by an unphosphorylatable form of its target Merlin, suggesting that PAK promotes mitogenesis by phosphorylating, and thus inactivating, Merlin. Merlin mutants, which are presumed to exert a dominant-negative effect, enable recruitment of Rac to matrix adhesions and promote mitogenesis in confluent cells. Small interference RNA-mediated knockdown of Merlin exerts the same effects. Dominant-negative Rac blocks PAK-mediated release from contact inhibition, implying that PAK functions upstream of Rac in this signaling pathway. These results provide a framework for understanding the tumor suppressor function of Merlin and indicate that Merlin mediates contact inhibition of growth by suppressing recruitment of Rac to matrix adhesions.     

Virtual fragment screening for novel inhibitors of 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase

The enzyme 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase is a potential drug target for the parasitic protozoan Trypanosoma brucei, the causative organism of human African trypanosomiasis. This enzyme has a polar active site to accommodate the phosphate, hydroxyl and carboxylate groups of the substrate, 6-phosphogluconate. A virtual fragment screen was undertaken of the enzyme to discover starting points for the development of inhibitors which are likely to have appropriate physicochemical properties for an orally bioavailable compound. A virtual screening library was developed, consisting of compounds with functional groups that could mimic the phosphate group of the substrate, but which have a higher pK_a. Following docking, hits were clustered and appropriate compounds purchased and assayed against the enzyme. Three fragments were identified that had IC₅₀ values in the low micromolar range and good ligand efficiencies. Based on these initial hits, analogues were procured and further active compounds were identified. Some of the fragments identified represent potential starting points for a medicinal chemistry programme to develop potent drug-like inhibitors of the enzyme.     

Metabotropic glutamate receptors in neurodegeneration/neuroprotection: Still a hot topic?

Moving from early studies, we here review the most recent evidence linking metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors to processes of neurodegeneration/neuroprotection. The use of knockout mice and subtype-selective drugs has increased our knowledge of the precise role played by individual mGlu receptor subtypes in these processes. Activation of mGlu1 and mGlu5 receptors may either amplify or reduce neuronal damage depending on the context and the nature of the toxic insults. In contrast, mGlu1 and mGlu5 receptors antagonists are consistently protective in in vitro and in vivo models of neuronal death. A series of studies suggest that mGlu1 receptor antagonists or negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) are promising candidates for the treatment of ischemic brain damage, whereas mGlu5 receptor NAMs, which have been clinically developed for the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) and l-DOPA-induced dyskinesias, protect nigro-striatal dopaminergic neurons against 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) toxicity in mice and monkeys. Activation of glial mGlu3 receptors promotes the formation of various neurotrophic factors, such as transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Hence, selective mGlu3 receptor agonists or positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) (not yet available) are potentially helpful in the treatment of chronic neurodegenerative disorders such as PD, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Selective mGlu2 receptor PAMs should be used with caution in AD patients because these drugs are shown to amplify β-amyloid neurotoxicity. Finally, mGlu4 receptor agonists/PAMs share with mGlu5 receptor NAMs the ability to improve motor symptoms associated with PD and attenuate nigro-striatal degeneration at the same time. No data are yet available on the role of mGlu7 and mGlu8 receptors in neurodegeneration/neuroprotection.     

<Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">l</Emphasis>-Carnitine induces recovery of liver lipid metabolism in cancer cachexia

Cancer cachexia causes metabolic alterations with a marked effect on hepatic lipid metabolism. l-Carnitine modulates lipid metabolism and its supplementation has been proposed as a therapeutic strategy in many diseases. In the present study, the effects of l-carnitine supplementation on gene expression and on liver lipid metabolism-related proteins was investigated in cachectic tumour-bearing rats. Wistar rats were assigned to receive 1 g/kg of l-carnitine or saline. After 14 days, supplemented and control animals were assigned to a control (N), control supplemented with l-carnitine (CN), tumour-bearing Walker 256 carcinosarcoma (TB) and tumour-bearing supplemented with l-carnitine (CTB) group. The mRNA expression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase I and II (CPT I and II), microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP), liver fatty acid-binding protein (L-FABP), fatty acid translocase (FAT/CD36), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha) and organic cation transporter 2 (OCTN2) was assessed, and the maximal activity of CPT I and II in the liver measured, along with plasma and liver triacylglycerol content. The gene expression of MTP, and CPT I catalytic activity were reduced in TB, who also showed increased liver (150%) and plasma (3.3-fold) triacylglycerol content. l-Carnitine supplementation was able to restore these parameters back to control values (p < 0.05). These data show that l-carnitine preserves hepatic lipid metabolism in tumour-bearing animals, suggesting its supplementation to be of potential interest in cachexia.