Frequent Unanticipated Alleles of lethal giant larvae in Drosophila Second Chromosome Stocks

Forty years ago, a high frequency of lethal giant larvae (lgl) alleles in wild populations of Drosophila melanogaster was reported. This locus has been intensively studied for its roles in epithelial polarity, asymmetric neural divisions, and restriction of tissue proliferation. Here, we identify a high frequency of lgl alleles in the Bloomington second chromosome deficiency kit and the University of California at Los Angeles Bruinfly FRT40A-lethal P collection. These unrecognized aberrations confound the use of these workhorse collections for phenotypic screening or genetic mapping. In addition, we determined that independent alleles of insensitive, reported to affect asymmetric cell divisions during sensory organ development, carry lgl deletions that are responsible for the observed phenotypes. Taken together, these results encourage the routine testing of second chromosome stocks for second-site alleles of lgl.     

c-ABL tyrosine kinase stabilizes RAD51 chromatin association

The assembly of RAD51 recombinase on DNA substrates at sites of breakage is essential for their repair by homologous recombination repair (HRR). The signaling pathway that triggers RAD51 assembly at damage sites to form subnuclear foci is unclear. Here, we provide evidence that c-ABL, a tyrosine kinase activated by DNA damage which phosphorylates RAD51 on Tyr-315, works at a previously unrecognized, proximal step to initiate RAD51 assembly. We first show that c-ABL associates with chromatin after DNA damage in a manner dependent on its kinase activity. Using RAD51 mutants that are unable to oligomerize to form a nucleoprotein filament, we separate RAD51 assembly on DNA to form foci into two steps: stable chromatin association followed by oligomerization. We show that phosphorylation on Tyr-315 by c-ABL is required for chromatin association of oligomerization-defective RAD51 mutants, but is insufficient to restore oligomerization. Our findings suggest a new model for the regulation of early steps of HRR.     

Just How Much is the G-matrix Actually Constraining Adaptation?

The genetic variance–covariance matrix (G) has long been considered to summarize the genetic constraints biasing evolution in its early stages, although in some instances, G can enhance divergence and facilitate adaptation. However, the effects of G on the response to selection might be of less importance than previously thought. In addition, it has been suggested that selection itself, under certain conditions, might rapidly alter the genetic covariance structure. If selection can indeed affect the stability of G to facilitate evolution, the overall structure of G might not be as important to consider as the past selective conditions that G was subject to. Thus, more empirical work is needed on the stability of G in the early stages of divergence before one can really assess to what extent G constrains evolution.     

IL22/IL-22R Pathway Induces Cell Survival in Human Glioblastoma Cells

Interleukin-22 (IL-22) is a member of the IL-10 cytokine family that binds to a heterodimeric receptor consisting of IL-22 receptor 1 (IL-22R1) and IL-10R2. IL-22R expression was initially characterized on epithelial cells, and plays an essential role in a number of inflammatory diseases. Recently, a functional receptor was detected on cancer cells such as hepatocarcinoma and lung carcinoma, but its presence was not reported in glioblastoma (GBM). Two GBM cell lines and 10 primary cell lines established from patients undergoing surgery for malignant GBM were used to investigate the expression of IL-22 and IL-22R by using quantitative RT-PCR, western blotting and confocal microscopy studies. The role of IL-22 in proliferation and survival of GBM cell lines was investigated in vitro by BrdU and ELISA cell death assays. We report herein that the two subunits of the IL-22R complex are expressed on human GBM cells. Their activation, depending on exogenous IL-22, induced antiapoptotic effect and cell proliferation. IL-22 treatment of GBM cells resulted in increased levels of phosphorylated Akt, STAT3 signaling protein and its downstream antiapoptotic protein Bcl-xL and decreased level of phosphorylated ERK1/2. In addition, IL-22R subunits were expressed in all the 10 tested primary cell lines established from GBM tumors. Our results showed that IL-22R is expressed on GBM established and primary cell lines. Depending on STAT3, ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt pathways, IL-22 induced GBM cell survival. These data are consistent with a potential role of IL-22R in tumorigenesis of GBM. Since endogenous IL-22 was not detected in all studied GBM cells, we hypothesize that IL-22R could be activated by immune microenvironmental IL-22 producing cells.     

Behavioral Cost & Overdominance in Anopheles gambiae

In response to the widespread use of control strategies such as Insecticide Treated Nets (ITN), Anopheles mosquitoes have evolved various resistance mechanisms. Kdr is a mutation that provides physiological resistance to the pyrethroid insecticides family (PYR). In the present study, we investigated the effect of the Kdr mutation on the ability of female An. gambiae to locate and penetrate a 1cm-diameter hole in a piece of netting, either treated with insecticide or untreated, to reach a bait in a wind tunnel. Kdr homozygous, PYR-resistant mosquitoes were the least efficient at penetrating an untreated damaged net, with about 51% [39-63] success rate compared to 80% [70-90] and 78% [65-91] for homozygous susceptible and heterozygous respectively. This reduced efficiency, likely due to reduced host-seeking activity, as revealed by mosquito video-tracking, is evidence of a recessive behavioral cost of the mutation. Kdr heterozygous mosquitoes were the most efficient at penetrating nets treated with PYR insecticide, thus providing evidence for overdominance, the rarely-described case of heterozygote advantage conveyed by a single locus. The study also highlights the remarkable capacity of female mosquitoes, whether PYR-resistant or not, to locate holes in bed-nets.     

17-beta-estradiol activates maxi-K channels through a non-genomic pathway in human breast cancer cells

We have investigated the acute effects of 17-beta-estradiol (E2) on K+ channels in MCF-7 breast epithelial cancer cells. E2 induced a rapid and irreversible augmentation of the K+ current for all membrane potentials superior to -25 mV. The effect of E2 was sensitive to Iberiotoxin, Charybdotoxin and TEA and can be elicited in the presence of the anti-estrogen ICI 182780 or be mimicked by the membrane impermeant form E2/BSA. Furthermore, E2/BSA was able to stimulate cell proliferation in a maxi-K inhibitors-sensitive manner. Thus, these results permit us to identify the maxi-K channel as the molecular target of E2 that regulates cell proliferation independently of the estrogen receptor.     

Nutrient depletion may trigger the Yersinia pestis OmpR‐EnvZ regulatory system to promote flea‐borne plague transmission

The flea’s lumen gut is a poorly documented environment where the agent of flea‐borne plague, Yersinia pestis, must replicate to produce a transmissible infection. Here, we report that both the acidic pH and osmolarity of the lumen’s contents display simple harmonic oscillations with different periods. Since an acidic pH and osmolarity are two of three known stimuli of the OmpR‐EnvZ two‐component system in bacteria, we investigated the role and function of this Y. pestis system in fleas. By monitoring the in vivo expression pattern of three OmpR‐EnvZ‐regulated genes, we concluded that the flea gut environment triggers OmpR‐EnvZ. This activation was not, however, correlated with changes in pH and osmolarity but matched the pattern of nutrient depletion (the third known stimulus for OmpR‐EnvZ). Lastly, we found that the OmpR‐EnvZ and the OmpF porin are needed to produce the biofilm that ultimately obstructs the flea’s gut and thus hastens the flea‐borne transmission of plague. Taken as a whole, our data suggest that the flea gut is a complex, fluctuating environment in which Y. pestis senses nutrient depletion via OmpR‐EnvZ. Once activated, the latter triggers a molecular program (including at least OmpF) that produces the biofilm required for efficient plague transmission.     

BAmSA: Visualising transmembrane regions in protein complexes using biotinylated amphipols and electron microscopy

Membrane protein (MP) complexes play key roles in all living cells. Their structural characterisation is hampered by difficulties in purifying and crystallising them. Recent progress in electron microscopy (EM) have revolutionised the field, not only by providing higher-resolution structures for previously characterised MPs but also by yielding first glimpses into the structure of larger and more challenging complexes, such as bacterial secretion systems. However, the resolution of pioneering EM structures may be difficult and their interpretation requires clues regarding the overall organisation of the complexes. In this context, we present BAmSA, a new method for localising transmembrane (TM) regions in MP complexes, using a general procedure that allows tagging them without resorting to neither genetic nor chemical modification. Labels bound to TM regions can be visualised directly on raw negative-stain EM images, on class averages, or on three-dimensional reconstructions, providing a novel strategy to explore the organisation of MP complexes.     

A model for Ca2+ oscillations stimulated by the type 5 metabotropic glutamate receptor: an unusual mechanism based on repetitive, reversible phosphorylation of the receptor

In parallel with experimental investigations, the molecular mechanisms responsible for Ca²⁺ oscillations have been much investigated with computational models. In the vast majority of cell-types, these oscillations rely on the biphasic regulation of the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP₃) receptor by cytosolic Ca²⁺. However, when Ca²⁺ oscillations are initiated by agonist stimulation of the type 5 metabotropic glutamate (mGlu5) receptor, oscillatory behaviour is tightly controlled by repetitive cycles of receptor phosphorylation/dephosphorylation leading to the periodic activation/deactivation of the G protein-activated signalling cascade downstream of this G protein-coupled receptor. We present a minimal model for mGlu5 receptor-induced Ca²⁺ oscillations, taking into account receptor phosphorylation by a protein kinase C isoenzyme sensitive to diacylglycerol but not to Ca²⁺. Depending on the density of receptors and the level of stimulation, the model reproduces Ca²⁺ oscillations based on either a ‘dynamic uncoupling’ mechanism or InsP₃ receptor dynamics. When based on the former mechanism, Ca²⁺ oscillation frequency is insensitive to the level of stimulation, while the level of receptor expression is a determinant of oscillation frequency. When investigating the conditions for the occurrence of oscillations, the model predicts that dynamic uncoupling likely relies on a steep relationship between the activity of PKC and the amount of phosphorylated mGlu5 receptor. Finally, we use the model to simulate the adaptation of the signalling pathway during periods of prolonged stimulation associated with receptor desensitization/internalization. The model suggests that the existence of both oscillatory mechanisms could allow for a significant lengthening of the repetitive Ca²⁺ responses under these conditions.     

Idebenone Protects against Retinal Damage and Loss of Vision in a Mouse Model of Leber’s Hereditary Optic Neuropathy

Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is an inherited disease caused by mutations in complex I of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. The disease is characterized by loss of central vision due to retinal ganglion cell (RGC) dysfunction and optic nerve atrophy. Despite progress towards a better understanding of the disease, no therapeutic treatment is currently approved for this devastating disease. Idebenone, a short-chain benzoquinone, has shown promising evidence of efficacy in protecting vision loss and in accelerating recovery of visual acuity in patients with LHON. It was therefore of interest to study suitable LHON models in vitro and in vivo to identify anatomical correlates for this protective activity. At nanomolar concentrations, idebenone protected the rodent RGC cell line RGC-5 against complex I dysfunction in vitro. Consistent with the reported dosing and observed effects in LHON patients, we describe that in mice, idebenone penetrated into the eye at concentrations equivalent to those which protected RGC-5 cells from complex I dysfunction in vitro. Consequently, we next investigated the protective effect of idebenone in a mouse model of LHON, whereby mitochondrial complex I dysfunction was caused by exposure to rotenone. In this model, idebenone protected against the loss of retinal ganglion cells, reduction in retinal thickness and gliosis. Furthermore, consistent with this protection of retinal integrity, idebenone restored the functional loss of vision in this disease model. These results support the pharmacological activity of idebenone and indicate that idebenone holds potential as an effective treatment for vision loss in LHON patients.