Cole Disease Results from Mutations in ENPP1

The coexistence of abnormal keratinization and aberrant pigmentation in a number of cornification disorders has long suggested a mechanistic link between these two processes. Here, we deciphered the genetic basis of Cole disease, a rare autosomal-dominant genodermatosis featuring punctate keratoderma, patchy hypopigmentation, and uncommonly, cutaneous calcifications. Using a combination of exome and direct sequencing, we showed complete cosegregation of the disease phenotype with three heterozygous ENPP1 mutations in three unrelated families. All mutations were found to affect cysteine residues in the somatomedin-B-like 2 (SMB2) domain in the encoded protein, which has been implicated in insulin signaling. ENPP1 encodes ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (ENPP1), which is responsible for the generation of inorganic pyrophosphate, a natural inhibitor of mineralization. Previously, biallelic mutations in ENPP1 were shown to underlie a number of recessive conditions characterized by ectopic calcification, thus providing evidence of profound phenotypic heterogeneity in ENPP1-associated genetic diseases.     

Downregulation of AKT3 Increases Migration and Metastasis in Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells by Upregulating S100A4

Background

Treatment of breast cancer patients with distant metastases represents one of the biggest challenges in today’s gynecological oncology. Therefore, a better understanding of mechanisms promoting the development of metastases is of paramount importance. The serine/threonine kinase AKT was shown to drive cancer progression and metastasis. However, there is emerging data that single AKT isoforms (i.e. AKT1, AKT2 and AKT3) have different or even opposing functions in the regulation of cancer cell migration in vitro, giving rise to the hypothesis that inhibition of distinct AKT isoforms might have undesirable effects on cancer dissemination in vivo.

Methods

The triple negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 was used to investigate the functional roles of AKT in migration and metastasis. AKT single and double knockdown cells were generated using isoform specific shRNAs. Migration was analyzed using live cell imaging, chemotaxis and transwell assays. The metastatic potential of AKT isoform knockdown cells was evaluated in a subcutaneous xenograft mouse model in vivo.

Results

Depletion of AKT3, but not AKT1 or AKT2, resulted in increased migration in vitro. This effect was even more prominent in AKT2,3 double knockdown cells. Furthermore, combined downregulation of AKT2 and AKT3, as well as AKT1 and AKT3 significantly increased metastasis formation in vivo. Screening for promigratory proteins revealed that downregulation of AKT3 increases the expression of S100A4 protein. In accordance, depletion of S100A4 by siRNA approach reverses the increased migration induced by knockdown of AKT3.

Conclusions

We demonstrated that knockdown of AKT3 can increase the metastatic potential of triple negative breast cancer cells. Therefore, our results provide a rationale for the development of AKT isoform specific inhibitors.     

Metabolism and toxicological detection of the designer drug 4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamine (DOI) in rat urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

The amphetamine-derived designer drug 4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamine (DOI) is an upcoming substance on the illicit drug market. In the current study, the identification of its metabolites in rat urine and their toxicological detection in the authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure were examined. DOI is extensively metabolized by O-demethylation and beside small amounts of parent compound it was found to be excreted mainly in form of metabolites. The STA procedure using full-scan GC-MS allowed proving an intake of a common drug users' dose of DOI by detection of the two O-demethyl metabolite isomers in rat urine. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure should be suitable for proof of an intake of DOI in human urine.     

The Mycobacterium tuberculosis pks2 gene encodes the synthase for the hepta- and octamethyl-branched fatty acids required for sulfolipid synthesis

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis is a major global health emergency. Cell wall lipids of Mycobacterium tuberculosis can play crucial roles in the pathogenesis. The enzymes involved in their synthesis can be ideal new drug targets against tuberculosis, because many such lipids are unique to this pathogen. A variety of multiple methyl-branched fatty acids are among such unique lipids. We have identified seven genes highly homologous to the mas gene, which is known to be involved in the production of one class of such multiple methyl-branched fatty acids. One of these mas-like genes, pks2, was disrupted using a phage-mediated delivery of the disruption construct. Gene disruption by homologous recombination was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction analysis of the flanking regions of the introduced disrupted gene and by Southern analysis. Thin-layer and radio gas-chromatographic analyses of lipids derived from [1-14C]propionic acid and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of the fatty acids and hydroxy fatty acids showed that the pks2 mutant was incapable of producing hepta- and octamethyl phthioceranic acids and hydroxyphthioceranic acids that are the major acyl constituents of sulfolipids. Consequently, pks2 mutant does not produce sulfolipids. Sulfolipid deficiency in pks2 mutant was confirmed by two-dimensional thin-layer chromatographic analysis of lipids derived from [1-14C]propionic acid and 35SO4(-2). With this sulfolipid-deficient mutant, it should be possible to test for the postulated important roles for sulfolipids in the pathogenesis of M. tuberculosis.     

Bsd2 binds the ubiquitin ligase Rsp5 and mediates the ubiquitination of transmembrane proteins

Membrane proteins destined for the vacuolar or lysosomal lumen are typically ubiquitinated, the ubiquitin serving as a targeting signal for the multivesicular body pathway. The RING-domain ubiquitin ligase Tul1 is an integral membrane protein that modifies the yeast vacuolar enzyme carboxypeptidase S (Cps1), the polyphosphatase Ppn1/Phm5 and other proteins containing exposed hydrophilic residues within their transmembrane domains (TMDs). Here we show that Bsd2 provides an alternative ubiquitination mechanism for Cps1, Phm5 and other proteins. Bsd2 is a three-TMD protein with a PPXY motif that binds the HECT domain ubiquitin ligase Rsp5. It can thus act as a specific adaptor linking Rsp5 to its substrates. Like Tul1, the Bsd2 system recognises polar TMDs. Bsd2 also controls the vacuolar targeting of a manganese transporter and a mutant plasma membrane ATPase, and together with the ER retrieval receptor Rer1, it protects cells from stress. We suggest that Bsd2 has a wide role in the quality control of membrane proteins. Bsd2 is the yeast homologue of human NEDD4 binding protein N4WBP5, which may therefore have similar functions.     

Thymosin beta 4 and its N-terminal tetrapeptide, AcSDKP, inhibit proliferation, and induce dysplastic, non-apoptotic nuclei and degranulation of mast cells

Thymosin beta4 (Tbeta4), a 5 kDa polypeptide, is a member of the beta-thymosin family. It acts as the principal intracellular G-actin sequestering peptide and exhibits extracellular functions in angiogenesis and wound healing. The N-terminus of Tbeta4 contains a bioactive tetrapeptide, acSDKP, a negative regulator of hematopoietic stem-cell proliferation. Here, we show that both peptides inhibit mast-cell proliferation over the concentration range of 10(-6) to 10(-17) M with the maximum effect of both at 10(-14) M. Both Tbeta4 and acSDKP caused dysplastic mast-cell nuclei that were confirmed by DAPI fluorescent staining. Flow-cytometric analysis of ploidy revealed that the dysplastic nuclei were not multinucleated, but fragmented nuclei in G2 growth arrest. We could further demonstrate that 10(-8) or 10(-14) M Tbeta4 or acSDKP induce mast-cell degranulation. A concentration of 10(-8) M Tbeta4 or acSDKP caused 57 or 89% degranulation, respectively. A number of tryptic fragments of Tbeta4 were assayed beside intact Tbeta4 and the tetrapeptide, and found to be inactive.     

Mitofusins Mfn1 and Mfn2 coordinately regulate mitochondrial fusion and are essential for embryonic development

Mitochondrial morphology is determined by a dynamic equilibrium between organelle fusion and fission, but the significance of these processes in vertebrates is unknown. The mitofusins, Mfn1 and Mfn2, have been shown to affect mitochondrial morphology when overexpressed. We find that mice deficient in either Mfn1 or Mfn2 die in midgestation. However, whereas Mfn2 mutant embryos have a specific and severe disruption of the placental trophoblast giant cell layer, Mfn1-deficient giant cells are normal. Embryonic fibroblasts lacking Mfn1 or Mfn2 display distinct types of fragmented mitochondria, a phenotype we determine to be due to a severe reduction in mitochondrial fusion. Moreover, we find that Mfn1 and Mfn2 form homotypic and heterotypic complexes and show, by rescue of mutant cells, that the homotypic complexes are functional for fusion. We conclude that Mfn1 and Mfn2 have both redundant and distinct functions and act in three separate molecular complexes to promote mitochondrial fusion. Strikingly, a subset of mitochondria in mutant cells lose membrane potential. Therefore, mitochondrial fusion is essential for embryonic development, and by enabling cooperation between mitochondria, has protective effects on the mitochondrial population.     

Togninia (Calosphaeriales) is confirmed as teleomorph of Phaeoacremonium by means of morphology, sexual compatibility and DNA phylogeny

Petri disease, or black goo, is a serious disease of vines in most areas where grapevines are cultivated. The predominant associated fungus is Phaeomoniella chlamydospora (Chaetothyriales). Several species of Phaeoacremonium (Pm.) also are associated, of which Pm. aleophilum is the most common. Although no teleomorph is known for Phaeoacremonium, the genus Togninia previously has been linked to phaeoacremonium-like anamorphs. To investigate the possible anamorph-teleomorph connection of Phaeoacremonium to Togninia, anamorphs of Togninia minima, T. fraxinopennsylvanica and T. novae-zealandiae morphologically were compared with Pm. aleophilum and some representative cultures were mated in all combinations. Although no interspecies mating proved fertile, matings between isolates of Pm. aleophilum produced a Togninia teleomorph within 3-4 weeks. Certain field isolates of Pm. aleophilum commonly produced the teleomorph, demonstrating that both mating types can occur in the same vine and thus also explaining the genetic diversity observed for this fungus in some vineyards. To elucidate the phylogenetic relationships among these taxa, isolates were subjected to sequence analysis of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacers (ITS1, ITS2) and the 5.8S rRNA gene, as well as portions of the translation elongation factor 1 alpha (EF-1α) gene. The generic placement of teleomorphs within Togninia (Calosphaeriales) further was confirmed via phylogenetic analyses of 18S small subunit (SSU) DNA. From these sequences, morphological and mating data, we conclude that T. minima is the teleomorph of Pm. aleophilum, and that it has a biallelic heterothallic mating system. An epitype and mating type tester strains also are designated for T. minima.