Identity of common phosphoprotein substrates stimulated by interleukin 2 and diacylglycerol suggests a role of protein kinase C for IL 2 signal transduction

Interleukin 2 (IL 2) is a polypeptide growth factor essential for the proliferation and differentiation of T lymphocytes, large granulocytic lymphocytes, and, potentially, cells of the antibody-producing lineage, B lymphocytes. Many of the biological properties of IL 2 may be mimicked or potentiated by a potent class of tumor promoters, phorbol esters. Phorbol esters have recently been shown to associate with and activate a unique phospholipid/Ca2+-dependent phosphotransferase, protein kinase C (PK-C). Utilizing two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, we have compared the IL 2 and diacylglycerol-induced protein phosphorylation patterns of several IL 2-dependent murine cell lines. Both IL 2 and synthetic diacylglycerol, 1-oleyl-2-acetylglycerol (OAG), stimulated phosphorylation of a number of protein substrates in intact cells compared to unstimulated controls. Three groups of substrates were identified; the first showed increased phosphorylation following stimulation with either IL 2 or OAG, while the second and third groups showed increased phosphorylation following stimulation with IL 2 but not OAG, and with OAG but not IL 2, respectively. Here, we characterize the kinetics of phosphorylation of one cellular substrate, p68, which appears to be phosphorylated in response to direct activators of PK-C or lymphoid or myeloid growth factors in their respective lineage cell lines. The observation that IL 2 also stimulates a unique series of phosphoproteins in addition to those induced by direct PK-C activators suggests that IL 2 may initiate additional protein kinase activities, unrelated to PK-C, which may also be critical for the ligand-receptor signal transduction process regulating growth and gene expression.     

Decreased incidence of mycorrhizal root tips associated with soil heavy-metal enrichment

Mycorrhizal incidence was studied at two forested locations in south-central Virgina. At each location, one site with soil naturally enriched in copper, lead and zinc was designated as mineralized, and an adjacent site, with significantly lower levels of these metals, was used as a control. A total of 223 soil samples were collected during the summer of 1984 and assayed for active mycorrhizal tips. A reduced active mycorrhizal root tip count was found in those samples collected from the mineralized sites at both locations (P≤0.001).     

Genetic and molecular evidence of an X-chromosome deletion spanning the tabby (Ta) and testicular feminization (Tfm) loci in the mouse

A new radiation-induced mutation in the mouse, tabby-25H (Ta25H), has proved to be a deletion which spans both the tabby and testicular feminization (Tfm) loci on the X chromosome. The Ta phenotype closely resembles that of the original TaFa mutation in both the heterozygous and hemizygous conditions but Ta25H/Y animals additionally show the Tfm/Y phenotype, being externally female but possessing abdominally located testes. There is a shortage of both Ta25H/+ and Ta25H/Y classes relative to their normal sibs among the progeny of Ta25H/+ females at weaning age and this was indicated to be due to prenatal or neonatal losses. Exencephaly was observed in some members of both classes prior to birth. Both Ta25H classes tend to be runted at weaning but, remarkably, Ta25H/+ females often show a range of abnormalities not evident in Ta25H/Y animals. When probes for the Zfx, Ccg-1, Phk, and DXPas19 loci, which lie close to Ta, were hybridised to DNAs from Ta25H hemizygotes, the profiles of the X-linked bands were similar to those of control DNAs, suggesting these loci lie outside the deletion. However, a clear absence of an X-linked band was found with human androgen receptor probes, indicating that the Tfm locus is indeed missing. The deletion, therefore, extends a minimum of 1.5 cM and, with its proximal and distal boundaries partially defined, it could be as large as 4 cM. As Ta25H/+ females show the striped X-inactivation coat pattern, the putative X-inactivation centre, Xce, which lies close to Ta, cannot be located within the region deleted. The greasy (Gs) locus similarly appears to lie outside the deletion.     

Clinical pharmacodynamics of anticancer drugs: a basis for extending the concept of dose-intensity

The studies reviewed herein support the precept that "systemic dose-intensity" (i.e., systemic exposure) may be more informative than "administered dose-intensity" for certain anticancer drugs. This does not mean that the administered dose-intensity should be ignored; in fact these data indicate the importance of documenting and assessing administered dose-intensity as an initial step toward identifying those situations where systemic dose-intensity may be most important. The studies described in this review were selected as representative examples of successful clinical pharmacodynamic studies; other published examples include vincristine AUC versus severity of neurotoxicity, etoposide systemic exposure versus leukopenia, red cell concentration of mercaptopurine metabolites versus neutropenia in children with ALL, and ARA-CTP retention in leukemic blasts versus clinical response in acute non-lymphocytic leukemia. As is the case with other types of clinical trials in cancer patients, there are also examples of negative pharmacodynamic studies (i.e., no relationship found between concentration and effects). There are several possible reasons for such negative findings, including the lack of such a relationship for some drugs, measuring the inappropriate drug moiety (e.g., failure to measure all active metabolites), measuring drug concentrations in the wrong biological fluid, evaluating systemic exposure over too narrow a range (i.e., all patients have either sub- or supra-therapeutic systemic exposure), selecting inappropriate sampling times or pharmacokinetic parameters, inadequately assessing drug toxicity or response, or simply studying an inadequate number of patients or patients with drug-resistant cancers. Therefore, negative findings in some pharmacodynamic studies should not deter the investigation of other drugs and/or other malignant diseases, just as negative therapeutic trials do not preclude subsequent clinical trials in oncology. Also, finding a relation between systemic exposure and drug toxicity, in the absence of a clear relation to antitumor effects, is potentially of great clinical utility. Such data should allow more objective escalation of drug dosages in individual patients, to ensure maximum dose-intensity while avoiding host toxicity. Obviously, if such dose escalation could be guided by more easily measured patient characteristics (e.g., age, weight, CrCl, shoe size, etc.), then using drug concentrations in individual patients might be obviated.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Botulinum neurotoxin type B. Its purification, radioiodination and interaction with rat-brain synaptosomal membranes

Neurotoxin from Clostridium botulinum type B was purified to homogeneity by by affinity and ion-exchange chromatography; specific neurotoxicity of this protein (Mr of approximately equal to 155 000) following trypsinisation attained a level of 2 X 10(8) mouse LD50 units/mg protein. 125I-iodination of the toxin to high specific radioactivities (19-63 TBq/mmol) yielded typically greater than 65% of its original toxicity; dodecyl sulphate gel electrophoresis under reducing conditions, after trypsinisation, showed that the larger polypeptide (Mr of approximately equal to 101 000) was labelled preferentially. Saturable binding of the 125I-labelled neurotoxin to rat cerebrocortical synaptosomes was observed and Scatchard analysis showed a low content of acceptors with high affinity (Kd = 0.3-0.5 nM;Bmax approximately equal to 30-60 fmol/mg protein, together with a much larger population of weak-affinity sites. No significant differences in binding affinity were seen in competition experiments using native or fully activated (trypsinized) neurotoxin, indicating that chain cleavage is not essential for acceptor-toxin interaction. Type A botulinum neurotoxin showed a limited capacity to inhibit the synaptosomal binding of labelled type B toxin, even at high concentrations (1 muM), and other neurotoxins were without effect, emphasising the acceptor selectivity. Near-complete loss of specific toxin binding was produced by preincubation of synaptosomes with neuraminidase whereas inhibition of the low-affinity sites with wheat-germ agglutinin was less pronounced; such inactivation was prevented by inclusion of selective inhibitors (2,3-dehydro-2-deoxy-N-acetylneuraminic acid and N-acetylglucosamine, respectively). These observations implicate N-acetylneuraminic acid and, possibly, other sugar moieties as constituents of the toxin acceptors. Trypsinisation of synaptosomes gave incomplete inhibition of binding when assayed with 1 nM or 10 nM 125I-iodinated toxin. Detailed analysis of the actions of neuraminidase, trypsin and heat treatment on the concentration dependence of toxin binding suggest the existence of at least two distinguishable populations of sites that contain N-acetylneuraminic acid, with a protein component being associated with the acceptors of lower affinity. These findings are discussed in relation to those previously reported for type A neurotoxin and to the possible physiological significance of such membrane acceptors.