High virus-to-cell ratios indicate ongoing production of viruses in deep subsurface sediments

Marine sediments cover two-thirds of our planet and harbor huge numbers of living prokaryotes. Long-term survival of indigenous microorganisms within the deep subsurface is still enigmatic, as sources of organic carbon are vanishingly small. To better understand controlling factors of microbial life, we have analyzed viral abundance within a comprehensive set of globally distributed subsurface sediments. Phages were detected by electron microscopy in deep (320 m below seafloor), ancient (∼14 Ma old) and the most oligotrophic subsurface sediments of the world''s oceans (South Pacific Gyre (SPG)). The numbers of viruses (10⁴–10⁹ cm⁻³, counted by epifluorescence microscopy) generally decreased with sediment depth, but always exceeded the total cell counts. The enormous numbers of viruses indicate their impact as a controlling factor for prokaryotic mortality in the marine deep biosphere. The virus-to-cell ratios increased in deeper and more oligotrophic layers, exhibiting values of up to 225 in the deep subsurface of the SPG. High numbers of phages might be due to absorption onto the sediment matrix and a diminished degradation by exoenzymes. However, even in the oldest sediments, microbial communities are capable of maintaining viral populations, indicating an ongoing viral production and thus, viruses provide an independent indicator for microbial life in the marine deep biosphere.     

Highly Polymorphic Microsatellite Markers for the Assessment of Male Reproductive Skew and Genetic Variation in Critically Endangered Crested Macaques (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca nigra</Emphasis>)

Genetic analyses based on noninvasively collected samples have become an important tool for evolutionary biology and conservation. Crested macaques (Macaca nigra), endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia, are important for our understanding of primate evolution as Sulawesi macaques represent an exceptional example of primate adaptive radiation. Crested macaques are also Critically Endangered. However, to date we know very little about their genetics. The aim of our study was to find and validate microsatellite markers useful for evolutionary, conservation, and other genetic studies on wild crested macaques. Using fecal samples of 176 wild macaques living in the Tangkoko Reserve, Sulawesi, we identified 12 polymorphic microsatellite loci through cross-species polymerase chain reaction amplification with later modification of some of these primers. We tested their suitability by investigating and exploring patterns of paternity, observed heterozygosity, and evidence for inbreeding. We assigned paternity to 63 of 65 infants with high confidence. Among cases with solved paternity, we found no evidence of extragroup paternity and natal breeding. We found a relatively steep male reproductive skew B index of 0.330 ± 0.267; mean ± SD) and mean alpha paternity of 65% per year with large variation across groups and years (29–100%). Finally, we detected an excess in observed heterozygosity and no evidence of inbreeding across our three study groups, with an observed heterozygosity of 0.766 ± 0.059 and expected heterozygosity of 0.708 ± 0.059, and an inbreeding coefficient of ?0.082 ± 0.035. Our results indicate that the selected markers are useful for genetic studies on wild crested macaques, and possibly also on other Sulawesi and closely related macaques. They further suggest that the Tangkoko population of crested macaques is still genetically variable despite its small size, isolation, and the species’ reproductive patterns. This gives us hope that other endangered primate species living in small, isolated populations may also retain a healthy gene pool, at least in the short term.     

长春净月潭地区土壤跳虫的生态分布

土壤动物直接参与土壤形成,它与土壤微生物的相互配合,对植物凋落物的分解起着十分重要的作用。土壤跳虫是土壤动物中最重要的类群之一。关于它的生态分布,目前国内报道不多。东北师范大学和日本九州大学合作,对长春净月潭地区的土壤跳虫进行了初步调查。     

NMDA receptor ablation on parvalbumin-positive interneurons impairs hippocampal synchrony, spatial representations, and working memory

Activity of parvalbumin-positive hippocampal interneurons is critical for network synchronization but the receptors involved therein have remained largely unknown. Here we report network and behavioral deficits in mice with selective ablation of NMDA receptors in parvalbumin-positive interneurons (NR1(PVCre-/-)). Recordings of local field potentials and unitary neuronal activity in the hippocampal CA1 area revealed altered theta oscillations (5-10 Hz) in freely behaving NR1(PVCre-/-) mice. Moreover, in contrast to controls, in NR1(PVCre-/-) mice the remaining theta rhythm was abolished by the administration of atropine. Gamma oscillations (35-85 Hz) were increased and less modulated by the concurrent theta rhythm in the mutant. Positional firing of pyramidal cells in NR1(PVCre-/-) mice was less spatially and temporally precise. Finally, NR1(PVCre-/-) mice exhibited impaired spatial working as well as spatial short- and long-term recognition memory but showed no deficits in open field exploratory activity and spatial reference learning.     

The mutation rates of di-, tri- and tetranucleotide repeats in Drosophila melanogaster

In a recent study, we reported that the combined average mutation rate of 10 di-, 6 tri-, and 8 tetranucleotide repeats in Drosophila melanogaster was 6.3 x 10(-6) mutations per locus per generation, a rate substantially below that of microsatellite repeat units in mammals studied to date (range = 10(-2)-10(-5) per locus per generation). To obtain a more precise estimate of mutation rate for dinucleotide repeat motifs alone, we assayed 39 new dinucleotide repeat microsatellite loci in the mutation accumulation lines from our earlier study. Our estimate of mutation rate for a total of 49 dinucleotide repeats is 9.3 x 10(-6) per locus per generation, only slightly higher than the estimate from our earlier study. We also estimated the relative difference in microsatellite mutation rate among di-, tri-, and tetranucleotide repeats in the genome of D. melanogaster using a method based on population variation, and we found that tri- and tetranucleotide repeats mutate at rates 6.4 and 8.4 times slower than that of dinucleotide repeats, respectively. The slower mutation rates of tri- and tetranucleotide repeats appear to be associated with a relatively short repeat unit length of these repeat motifs in the genome of D. melanogaster. A positive correlation between repeat unit length and allelic variation suggests that mutation rate increases as the repeat unit lengths of microsatellites increase.      

Structural model of the gas vesicle protein GvpA and analysis of GvpA mutants in vivo

Gas vesicles are gas-filled protein structures increasing the buoyancy of cells. The gas vesicle envelope is mainly constituted by the 8 kDa protein GvpA forming a wall with a water excluding inner surface. A structure of GvpA is not available; recent solid-state NMR results suggest a coil-α-β-β-α-coil fold. We obtained a first structural model of GvpA by high-performance de novo modelling. Attenuated total reflection (ATR)-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) supported this structure. A dimer of GvpA was derived that could explain the formation of the protein monolayer in the gas vesicle wall. The hydrophobic inner surface is mainly constituted by anti-parallel β-strands. The proposed structure allows the pinpointing of contact sites that were mutated and tested for the ability to form gas vesicles in haloarchaea. Mutations in α-helix I and α-helix II, but also in the β-turn affected the gas vesicle formation, whereas other alterations had no effect. All mutants supported the structural features deduced from the model. The proposed GvpA dimers allow the formation of a monolayer protein wall, also consistent with protease treatments of isolated gas vesicles.     

Sensilla coeloconica ringed by microtrichia in host‐seeking biting midges

The distribution and morphology of antennal sensilla coeloconica in parasitic and predaceous biting midges were studied in females of Forcipomyia (feeding on the blood of frogs), Atrichopogon (feeding on haemolymph), Austroconops, Culicoides (feeding on the blood of birds and mammals) and Brachypogon (feeding on haemolymph and dissolved tissues of insects) (all: Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). A Lower Cretaceous female of Archiculicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) from Lebanese amber, which fed on the blood of unknown vertebrates, was also examined. In sensilla coeloconica ringed by microtrichia, the peg is grooved longitudinally and protrudes distinctly from the pit. We suggest that the microtrichia encircling the protruding peg form a structure resembling a picket fence in order to maintain a higher level of humidity, which facilitates the capture and transport of odour molecules through the channels in the peg wall. Sensilla coeloconica ringed by microtrichia function as very effective chemoreceptors in host‐ and prey‐seeking activity. During the evolution of Ceratopogonidae, sensilla coeloconica with a fence of microtrichia have evolved twice in groups feeding on the blood of vertebrates (i.e. in the basal lineage: Lower Cretaceous or earlier) and in the subgenus Lasiohelea of Forcipomyia (Palaeogene). Sensilla coeloconica ringed by microtrichia are described for the first time in the relict genus Austroconops.     

A precision method to measure average viscoelastic parameters of erythrocyte populations

Suspensions of erythrocytes in media of low conductivity are subjected to homogenous high frequency electric fields (1 MHz, approximately 10 to 40 kV/m). The resulting transient deformation of the cells is measured by laser light diffraction. Employing a viscoelastic model of the erythrocyte membrane, relative values of membrane shear modulus and response time can currently be determined to within 7% or better. With a measurement time of one minute the average values of some 10(5) cells can be obtained. As a test of the method, osmotic swelling and deflation of the cells and crosslinking their membrane skeleton by diamide are used to alter the viscoelastic properties of the erythrocytes.