The evolution and ecology of multiple antipredator defences

Prey seldom rely on a single type of antipredator defence, often using multiple defences to avoid predation. In many cases, selection in different contexts may favour the evolution of multiple defences in a prey. However, a prey may use multiple defences to protect itself during a single predator encounter. Such “defence portfolios” that defend prey against a single instance of predation are distributed across and within successive stages of the predation sequence (encounter, detection, identification, approach (attack), subjugation and consumption). We contend that at present, our understanding of defence portfolio evolution is incomplete, and seen from the fragmentary perspective of specific sensory systems (e.g., visual) or specific types of defences (especially aposematism). In this review, we aim to build a comprehensive framework for conceptualizing the evolution of multiple prey defences, beginning with hypotheses for the evolution of multiple defences in general, and defence portfolios in particular. We then examine idealized models of resource trade-offs and functional interactions between traits, along with evidence supporting them. We find that defence portfolios are constrained by resource allocation to other aspects of life history, as well as functional incompatibilities between different defences. We also find that selection is likely to favour combinations of defences that have synergistic effects on predator behaviour and prey survival. Next, we examine specific aspects of prey ecology, genetics and development, and predator cognition that modify the predictions of current hypotheses or introduce competing hypotheses. We outline schema for gathering data on the distribution of prey defences across species and geography, determining how multiple defences are produced, and testing the proximate mechanisms by which multiple prey defences impact predator behaviour. Adopting these approaches will strengthen our understanding of multiple defensive strategies.     

Defining null expectations for animal site fidelity

Site fidelity—the tendency to return to previously visited locations—is widespread across taxa. Returns may be driven by several mechanisms, including memory, habitat selection, or chance; however, pattern-based definitions group different generating mechanisms under the same label of ‘site fidelity’, often assuming memory as the main driver. We propose an operational definition of site fidelity as patterns of return that deviate from a null expectation derived from a memory-free movement model. First, using agent-based simulations, we show that without memory, intrinsic movement characteristics and extrinsic landscape characteristics are key determinants of return patterns and that even random movements may generate substantial probabilities of return. Second, we illustrate how to implement our framework empirically to establish ecologically meaningful, system-specific null expectations for site fidelity. Our approach provides a conceptual and operational framework to test hypotheses on site fidelity across systems and scales.     

Surveying nonvisual arrestins reveals allosteric interactions between functional sites

Arrestins are important scaffolding proteins that are expressed in all vertebrate animals. They regulate cell-signaling events upon binding to active G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) and trigger endocytosis of active GPCRs. While many of the functional sites on arrestins have been characterized, the question of how these sites interact is unanswered. We used anisotropic network modeling (ANM) together with our covariance compliment techniques to survey all the available structures of the nonvisual arrestins to map how structural changes and protein-binding affect their structural dynamics. We found that activation and clathrin binding have a marked effect on arrestin dynamics, and that these dynamics changes are localized to a small number of distant functional sites. These sites include α-helix 1, the lariat loop, nuclear localization domain, and the C-domain β-sheets on the C-loop side. Our techniques suggest that clathrin binding and/or GPCR activation of arrestin perturb the dynamics of these sites independent of structural changes.     

Evidence of biotic resistance to exotic plant invasion in degraded Bornean forests

Intact tropical forests are generally considered to be resistant to invasions by exotic species, although the shrub Clidemia hirta (Melastomataceae) is highly invasive in tropical forests outside its native range. Release from natural enemies (e.g., herbivores and pathogens) contributes to C. hirta invasion success where native melastomes are absent, and here we examine the role of enemies when C. hirta co-occurs with native Melastomataceae species and associated herbivores and pathogens. We study 21 forest sites within agricultural landscapes in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, recording herbivory rates in C. hirta and related native Melastoma spp. plants along two 100-m transects per site that varied in canopy cover. Overall, we found evidence of enemy release; C. hirta had significantly lower herbivory (median occurrence of herbivory per plant = 79% of leaves per plant; median intensity of herbivory per leaf = 6% of leaf area) than native melastomes (93% and 20%, respectively). Herbivory on C. hirta increased when closer to native Melastoma plants with high herbivory damage, and in more shaded locations, and was associated with fewer reproductive organs on C. hirta. This suggests host-sharing by specialist Melastomataceae herbivores is occurring and may explain why invasion success of C. hirta is lower on Borneo than at locations without related native species present. Thus, natural enemy populations may provide a “biological control service” to suppress invasions of exotic species (i.e., biotic resistance). However, lower herbivory pressures in more open canopy locations may make highly degraded forests within these landscapes more susceptible to invasion.     

Development of DNA methylation-based epigenetic age predictors in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda)

Biological ageing is connected to life history variation across ecological scales and informs a basic understanding of age-related declines in organismal function. Altered DNA methylation dynamics are a conserved aspect of biological ageing and have recently been modelled to predict chronological age among vertebrate species. In addition to their utility in estimating individual age, differences between chronological and predicted ages arise due to acceleration or deceleration of epigenetic ageing, and these discrepancies are linked to disease risk and multiple life history traits. Although evidence suggests that patterns of DNA methylation can describe ageing in plants, predictions with epigenetic clocks have yet to be performed. Here, we resolve the DNA methylome across CpG, CHG, and CHH-methylation contexts in the loblolly pine tree (Pinus taeda) and construct epigenetic clocks capable of predicting ages in this species within 6% of its maximum lifespan. Although patterns of CHH-methylation showed little association with age, both CpG and CHG-methylation contexts were strongly associated with ageing, largely becoming hypomethylated with age. Among age-associated loci were those in close proximity to malate dehydrogenase, NADH dehydrogenase, and 18S and 26S ribosomal RNA genes. This study reports one of the first epigenetic clocks in plants and demonstrates the universality of age-associated DNA methylation dynamics which can inform conservation and management practices, as well as our ecological and evolutionary understanding of biological ageing in plants.     

Postcranial paleoneurology of the Diapsida

The relationships between the size of the spinal cord and the size of the neural canal, and between gross spinal cord anatomy and locomotor style, were documented in a wide range of living diapsids. Observed relationships were used to make predictions about spinal cord anatomy and about limb use and position in related fossil taxa. In particular, the data suggest that the brachial plexus, and therefore the cervical/dorsal vertebral transition, of the theropod dinosaurs studied was located considerably posterior to its presently accepted location, and that the forelimbs of the giant carnosaurs Tyrannosaurus rex and Carnotaurus sastrei were of biologically insignificant use. Neural canal measurements support previous interpretations of locomotor style in extinct crocodilians, and can be used to predict limb placement in plesiosaurs.     

Incorporating benthic community changes into hydrochemical-based projections of coral reef calcium carbonate production under ocean acidification

Coral Reefs - The existence of coral reefs is dependent on the production and maintenance of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) framework that is produced through calcification. The net production of CaCO3...     

Can we rely on forest reserves for primate conservation?

Tropical forests contain much of the world's biodiversity, yet their rate of decline is increasing. The strategy most frequently used to protect this biodiversity is to make parks and reserves. While there is a great deal of research on the effectiveness of parks for protecting biodiversity, there is little research on how well extractive reserves conserve biodiversity. Here, we evaluate the effectiveness of four forest reserves in western Uganda at maintaining populations of primates and compare census data from the reserves to data from the neighbouring well‐protected Kibale National Park. The relative abundance of the five most common primates in the park was approximately four times that of the forest reserves. In the forest reserves, evidence of new human encroachment was seen every 500 m, while in the park it was seen every 100,000 m. Two recommendations emerge from our research: (i) for forest reserves, such as those studied here, to have conservation value for primates, extraction must be reduced and (ii) until the long‐term viability of the populations in forest reserves can be ascertained, they should not be considered in estimates of the sizes of endangered species protected ranges.