The Erwin equation of biodiversity: From little steps to quantum leaps in the discovery of tropical insect diversity

Almost 40 years ago, Terry L. Erwin published a seemingly audacious proposition: There may be as many as 30 million species of insects in the world. Here, we translate Erwin's verbal argument into a diversity-ratio model—the Erwin Equation of Biodiversity—and discuss how it has inspired other biodiversity estimates. We categorize, describe the assumptions for, and summarize the most commonly used methods for calculating estimates of global biodiversity. Subsequent diversity-ratio extrapolations have incorporated parameters representing empirical insect specialization ratios, and how insect specialization changes at different spatial scales. Other approaches include macroecological diversity models and diversity curves. For many insect groups with poorly known taxonomies, diversity estimates are based on the opinions of taxonomic experts. We illustrate our current understanding of insect diversity by focusing on the six most speciose insect orders worldwide. For each order, we compiled estimates of the (a) maximum estimated number of species, (b) minimum estimated number of species, and (c) number of currently described species. By integrating these approaches and considering new information, we believe an estimate of 5.5 million species of insects in the world is much too low. New molecular methodologies (e.g., metabarcoding and NGS studies) are revealing daunting numbers of cryptic and previously undescribed species, at the same time increasing our precision but also uncertainty about present estimates. Not until technologies advance and sampling become more comprehensive, especially of tropical biotas, will we be able to make robust estimates of the total number of insect species on Earth.     

Adiponectin and ghrelin levels and body size in normoglycemic Filipino, African-American, and white women

Objective: Prior studies have reported ethnic differences in adiponectin and ghrelin, but few have assessed the role of body size in normoglycemic women. We compared fasting adiponectin and ghrelin concentrations in normoglycemic 40‐ to 80‐year‐old Filipino, African‐American, and white women. Methods: Participants included women from the Rancho Bernardo Study (n = 143), the University of California‐San Diego Filipino Women's Health Study (n = 136), and the Health Assessment Study of African‐American Women (n = 212). A 2‐hour oral glucose tolerance test was administered; glucose, insulin, lipid, and anthropometric measurements were obtained. Fasting adiponectin and ghrelin were measured by radioimmunoassay. Results: Whites and Filipinas had similar BMI (23.7 and 24.3 kg/m², respectively), waist girth (75.6 and 77.2 cm, respectively), and total body fat (27.4 and 28.5%, respectively); African‐Americans had significantly larger BMI (28.8 kg/m²), waist girth (86.3 cm), and body fat (39.6%, p < 0.0001). Adiponectin was lower in Filipinas (8.90 µg/mL) and African‐Americans (9.67 µg/mL) compared with whites (15.6 µg/mL, p < 0.001) after adjusting for age, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA‐IR), and waist‐to‐hip ratio. Compared with whites, Filipinas (β = ?5.06, p < 0.0001) and African‐Americans (β = ?6.85, p < 0.0001) had significantly lower adiponectin levels after adjusting for age, waist‐to‐hip ratio, HOMA‐IR, triglycerides, high‐density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, exercise, and alcohol use. Ghrelin was significantly lower in Filipinas compared with African‐Americans (1146.9 vs. 1412.2 pg/mL, p < 0.001), and this observation persisted in multivariable analysis (β = ?245.4, p < 0.0001). Ghrelin levels did not differ between whites (1356.9 pg/mL) and either ethnic group. Discussion: Normoglycemic Filipino and African‐American women had significantly lower adiponectin concentrations than white women, and Filipinas had lower ghrelin levels than African‐Americans, independently of body size or indices of insulin resistance or lipids.     

Neurotrophins,but not depolarization,regulate substance P expression in the developing optic tectum

Neurotransmitter expression can be regulated by both activity and neurotrophins in a number of in vitro systems. We examined whether either of these factors was likely to play a role in the in vivo optic nerve‐dependent regulation of a substance P‐like immunoreactive (SP‐ir) population of cells in the developing optic tectum of the frog. In contrast to our previous results with the adult system, blocking tectal cell responses to glutamate release by retinal ganglion cells with 6‐cyano‐7‐nitroquinoxaline‐2,3 dione (CNQX) did not affect the percent of SP‐ir cells in the developing tectum. Treatment with d‐(‐)‐2‐amino‐5‐phosphonovaleric acid (d‐AP‐5) was also ineffective in this regard, although both it and CNQX treatment disrupted visual map topography. Chronic treatment with brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin‐4/5 (NT‐4/5) produced increases in SP‐ir cells in the treated lobes of normal animals, which were significant in the case of NT‐4/5. Both substances also prevented the decrease of SP cells that would otherwise occur in the deafferented lobe of unilaterally optic nerve‐transected tadpoles. These changes in the percent of SP‐ir cells occurred without any detectable changes in the overall number of tectal cells. NGF had no effect on SP expression. Nor did it affect topographic map formation, which was disrupted by treatment with either BDNF or NT‐4/5. Our results demonstrate that different mechanisms regulate SP expression in the developing and adult tectum. They indicate that neurotrophin levels in the developing optic tectum may selectively regulate a specific neuropeptide‐expressing population of cells. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 48: 131–149, 2001     

RAGE mediates amyloid-beta peptide transport across the blood-brain barrier and accumulation in brain

Amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) interacts with the vasculature to influence Abeta levels in the brain and cerebral blood flow, providing a means of amplifying the Abeta-induced cellular stress underlying neuronal dysfunction and dementia. Systemic Abeta infusion and studies in genetically manipulated mice show that Abeta interaction with receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE)-bearing cells in the vessel wall results in transport of Abeta across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and expression of proinflammatory cytokines and endothelin-1 (ET-1), the latter mediating Abeta-induced vasoconstriction. Inhibition of RAGE-ligand interaction suppresses accumulation of Abeta in brain parenchyma in a mouse transgenic model. These findings suggest that vascular RAGE is a target for inhibiting pathogenic consequences of Abeta-vascular interactions, including development of cerebral amyloidosis.     

Fluorescence imaging of amyloid formation in living cells by a functional, tetracysteine-tagged alpha-synuclein

Alpha-synuclein is a major component of intraneuronal protein aggregates constituting a distinctive feature of Parkinson disease. To date, fluorescence imaging of dynamic processes leading to such amyloid deposits in living cells has not been feasible. To address this need, we generated a recombinant alpha-synuclein (alpha-synuclein-C4) bearing a tetracysteine target for fluorogenic biarsenical compounds. The biophysical, biochemical and aggregation properties of alpha-synuclein-C4 matched those of the wild-type protein in vitro and in living cells. We observed aggregation of alpha-synuclein-C4 transfected or microinjected into cells, particularly under oxidative stress conditions. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between FlAsH and ReAsH confirmed the close association of fibrillized alpha-synuclein-C4 molecules. Alpha-synuclein-C4 offers the means for directly probing amyloid formation and interactions of alpha-synuclein with other proteins in living cells, the response to cellular stress and screening drugs for Parkinson disease.     

A chimeric N-terminal Escherichia coli--C-terminal Rhodobacter sphaeroides FliG rotor protein supports bidirectional E. coli flagellar rotation and chemotaxis

Flagellate bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium typically express 5 to 12 flagellar filaments over their cell surface that rotate in clockwise (CW) and counterclockwise directions. These bacteria modulate their swimming direction towards favorable environments by biasing the direction of flagellar rotation in response to various stimuli. In contrast, Rhodobacter sphaeroides expresses a single subpolar flagellum that rotates only CW and responds tactically by a series of biased stops and starts. Rotor protein FliG transiently links the MotAB stators to the rotor, to power rotation and also has an essential function in flagellar export. In this study, we sought to determine whether the FliG protein confers directionality on flagellar motors by testing the functional properties of R. sphaeroides FliG and a chimeric FliG protein, EcRsFliG (N-terminal and central domains of E. coli FliG fused to an R. sphaeroides FliG C terminus), in an E. coli FliG null background. The EcRsFliG chimera supported flagellar synthesis and bidirectional rotation; bacteria swam and tumbled in a manner qualitatively similar to that of the wild type and showed chemotaxis to amino acids. Thus, the FliG C terminus alone does not confer the unidirectional stop-start character of the R. sphaeroides flagellar motor, and its conformation continues to support tactic, switch-protein interactions in a bidirectional motor, despite its evolutionary history in a bacterium with a unidirectional motor.     

Kinship and Dominance Rank Influence the Strength of Social Bonds in Female Geladas (Theropithecus gelada)

In many primates, close social relationships are associated with lower stress, better health, and increased life span. However, individuals do not form bonds indiscriminately; rather, they focus on a few primary partners. This suggests that the identity of the partner may be as important as the bond itself. Although dominance and kinship have repeatedly emerged as salient predictors of female relationships, most of this research comes from species with multimale, multifemale groups and strict dominance hierarchies. Further, kinship was typically determined based on either behavior or on known mother–daughter relationships alone. To understand the generality of previous findings, we use behavioral and genetic sampling to examine whether dominance rank and/or genetic relatedness mediate female social bonds in geladas (Theropithecus gelada) living in the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. First, we found that, even though females in the same unit are closely related, female geladas still preferentially bond with the closest of these relatives. Second, females that were close kin formed the strongest bonds with females of similar rank to themselves. Finally, rank disparity predicted grooming rates but did not predict whether females were nearest neighbors. This suggests that, in contrast with data from other cercopithecines, spatial proximity among females may be less indicative of strong social bonds for geladas, a species that routinely exhibits a high degree of spatial overlap with extra-unit individuals. Together, these results highlight the importance of combining genetic data with detailed behavioral observations to help us understand how individuals choose and interact with social partners.     

Soybean ferritin: isolation, characterization, and free radical generation

The main aim of this work was to assess the multi-task role of ferritin(Ft)in the oxidative metabolism of soybean(Glycine max).Soybean seeds incubated for 24 h yielded 41 ± 5 μg Ft/g fresh weight.The rate of in vitro incorporation of iron(Fe)into Ft was tested by supplementing the reaction medium with physiological Fe chelators.The control rate,observed in the presence of 100 μM Fe,was not significantly different from the values observed in the presence of 100 μM Fe-his.However,it was significantly higher in the presence of 100 μM Fe-citrate(approximately 4.5-fold)or of 100 μM Fe-ATP(approximately 14-fold).Moreover,a substantial decrease in the Trp-dependent fluorescence of the Ft protein was determined during Fe uptake from Fe-citrate,as compared with the control.On the other hand,Ft addition to homogenates from soybean embryonic axes reduced endogenously generated ascorbyl radical,according to its capacity for Fe uptake.The data presented here suggest that Ft could be involved in the generation of free radicals,such as hydroxyl radical,by Fe-catalyzed reactions.Moreover,the scavenging of these radicals by Ft itself could then lead to protein damage.However,Ft could also prevent cellular damage by the uptake of catalytically active Fe.