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The upland mesic rainforests of eastern Australia have been described as a "mesothermal archipelago" where a chain of cool mountain "islands" arise from a warm "sea" of tropical and subtropical lowlands. An endemic freshwater crayfish belonging to the genus Euastacus is found on each of these mountain "islands." The Euastacus are particularly suitable for the study of evolution because each mountain harbors a unique species, there are many taxa present providing replication within the group and, most importantly, their distribution is linear, extending along a south-north axis. This group could have evolved by "simultaneous vicariance" where there was one vicariant separation event of a widespread ancestor, or by "south to north stepping stone dispersal" where there were long distance dispersal events from neighboring mountain islands, starting in the south and proceeding north in a dispersal-colonization wave. We used pairwise genetic distances between nearest geographic neighbors as a novel way to test the two hypotheses. If diversification was due to "south to north stepping stone dispersal," then pairwise genetic distances between nearest geographic neighbors should decrease progressively the farther north the taxon pairs are found, reflecting the decreasing periods of isolation. In this case there should be a negative correlation between the south to north rank order of nearest neighbors and pairwise genetic distances. A Spearman's correlation on 16S mtDNA pairwise genetic distances and geographic rank order was not significant, indicating there was no support for the south to north stepping stone dispersal hypothesis. If simultaneous vicariance was responsible for diversification then all nearest geographic neighbor taxon pairs should have similar genetic distances and, therefore, the variance in nearest neighbor distances should be zero, or close to it. To test if the observed variance was tending towards zero we developed a randomization test where nearest neighbor taxon pairs were assigned random genetic distances and the variances calculated. The observed variance lay in the < 0.05 range of the simulated variances, providing support for the simultaneous vicariance hypothesis. The data also suggest there was simultaneous vicariance of at least two ancestral Queensland lineages. The timing of this vicariant event was probably in the Pliocene, which is consistent with the divergence times reported for other Australian mesic rainforest restricted taxa.  相似文献   
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Coastal marshes represent an important transitional zone between uplands and estuaries. One important function of marshes is to assimilate nutrient inputs from uplands, thus providing a buffer for anthropogenic nutrient loads. We examined the effects of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fertilization on biogeochemical and microbial processes during the summer growing season in a Spartina patens (Aiton (Muhl.)) marsh in the Narragansett Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve on Prudence Island (RI). Quadruplicate 1 m2 plots were fertilized with N and P additions, N-only, P-only, or no additions. N-only addition significantly stimulated bacterial production and increased pore water NH4+ and NO3 concentrations. Denitrification rates ranged from 0 to 8 mmol m−2 day−1. Fertilization had no apparent effect on soil oxygen consumption or denitrification measured in the summer in intact cores due to high core-to-core variation. P fertilization led to increased pore water dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP) concentrations and increased DIP release from soils. In contrast the control and N-only treatments had significant DIP uptake across the soil-water interface. The results suggest that in the summer fertilization has no apparent effect on denitrification rates, stimulates bacterial productivity, enhances pore water nutrient concentrations and alters some nutrient fluxes across the marsh surface.  相似文献   
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Fungal formulations are vital for effective biopesticide development. Good formulations help to optimise field efficacy, while poor formulations result in product failure. This study aimed to produce a hydrophobicity test that would be appropriate for fungal conidia produced to a commercial quality and determine relative hydrophobicity of fungi from four different genera by using laser diffraction. A particle size analyser was used to determine the hydrophobicity of: three Metarhizium acridum samples, M. anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana, Trichoderma stromaticum, T. harzianum, T. viride and Alternaria eichhorniae conidia by suspending the conidia in three different liquids: Shellsol T (a mineral oil), water and 0.05 % Tween 80. Hydrophobicity was determined by the size of the particles formed in each of the liquids. All the Metarhizium samples were the most hydrophobic followed by B. bassiana and A. eichhorniae. The Trichoderma samples were the least hydrophobic. As a comparison, a phase exclusion assay and a salt-mediated aggregation and sedimentation (SAS) test were performed. It was not possible to get a reliable reading for the B. bassiana, A. eichhorniae and T. viride samples using the phase exclusion assay. The addition of salt in the SAS test did not affect the rate of sedimentation. It was hypothesised that conidia size affected the results of the SAS test that made A. eichhorniae the most hydrophobic conidia. Particle size analysis (PSA) was a more accurate test for comparing fungi from difference genera compared to the SAS test and phase exclusion assay. PSA was also used to test three emulsions and demonstrated that different formulations had an effect on particle size.  相似文献   
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Adaptation to heterogeneous environments can occur via phenotypic plasticity, but how often this occurs is unknown. Reciprocal transplant studies provide a rich dataset to address this issue in plant populations because they allow for a determination of the prevalence of plastic versus canalized responses. From 31 reciprocal transplant studies, we quantified the frequency of five possible evolutionary patterns: (1) canalized response–no differentiation: no plasticity, the mean phenotypes of the populations are not different; (2) canalized response–population differentiation: no plasticity, the mean phenotypes of the populations are different; (3) perfect adaptive plasticity: plastic responses with similar reaction norms between populations; (4) adaptive plasticity: plastic responses with parallel, but not congruent reaction norms between populations; and (5) nonadaptive plasticity: plastic responses with differences in the slope of the reaction norms. The analysis included 362 records: 50.8% life‐history traits, 43.6% morphological traits, and 5.5% physiological traits. Across all traits, 52% of the trait records were not plastic, and either showed no difference in means across sites (17%) or differed among sites (83%). Among the 48% of trait records that showed some sort of plasticity, 49.4% showed perfect adaptive plasticity, 19.5% adaptive plasticity, and 31% nonadaptive plasticity. These results suggest that canalized responses are more common than adaptive plasticity as an evolutionary response to environmental heterogeneity.  相似文献   
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