Evaluating the Accuracy of Molecular Diagnostic Testing for Canine Visceral Leishmaniasis Using Latent Class Analysis

Host tissues affected by Leishmania infantum have differing degrees of parasitism. Previously, the use of different biological tissues to detect L. infantum DNA in dogs has provided variable results. The present study was conducted to evaluate the accuracy of molecular diagnostic testing (qPCR) in dogs from an endemic area for canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL) by determining which tissue type provided the highest rate of parasite DNA detection. Fifty-one symptomatic dogs were tested for CVL using serological, parasitological and molecular methods. Latent class analysis (LCA) was performed for accuracy evaluation of these methods. qPCR detected parasite DNA in 100% of these animals from at least one of the following tissues: splenic and bone marrow aspirates, lymph node and skin fragments, blood and conjunctival swabs. Using latent variable as gold standard, the qPCR achieved a sensitivity of 95.8% (CI 90.4–100) in splenic aspirate; 79.2% (CI 68–90.3) in lymph nodes; 77.3% (CI 64.5–90.1) in skin; 75% (CI 63.1–86.9) in blood; 50% (CI 30–70) in bone marrow; 37.5% (CI 24.2–50.8) in left-eye; and 29.2% (CI 16.7–41.6) in right-eye conjunctival swabs. The accuracy of qPCR using splenic aspirates was further evaluated in a random larger sample (n = 800), collected from dogs during a prevalence study. The specificity achieved by qPCR was 76.7% (CI 73.7–79.6) for splenic aspirates obtained from the greater sample. The sensitivity accomplished by this technique was 95% (CI 93.5–96.5) that was higher than those obtained for the other diagnostic tests and was similar to that observed in the smaller sampling study. This confirms that the splenic aspirate is the most effective type of tissue for detecting L. infantum infection. Additionally, we demonstrated that LCA could be used to generate a suitable gold standard for comparative CVL testing.     

Effects of a red tide on the structure of estuarine fish assemblages in northeastern Brazil

The present study evaluated changes in an estuarine fish community caused by blooms of the dinoflagellate Akashiwo sanguinea. Samples were collected before, during and after the red tide using seine nets and surface and bottom nets in three areas near the affected area. The area was around the mouth of the Paraguaçu River. A total of 144 samples were collected, containing 1,989 individuals, with a total weight of 51.4 kg, belonging to 42 species in 29 families. During the red tide, fish density, richness and biomass decreased significantly. Atherinella brasiliensis and Sphoeroides greeleyi were the most abundant species during the red tide, indicating some possible resistance to the effects of the red tide. One month after the red tide, there was a rapid recovery of the density, biomass and richness of fish, and Cetengraulis edentulus was the most captured species. An important result of the present study is the finding that the dynamics of small populations of fish are often influenced by fortuitous events, and stochasticity may dominate. The establishment of a continuous and adequate monitoring program in the area may contribute to understanding the effects of red tides on fish population dynamics. (© 2012 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Detection of an Allele Conferring Resistance to Bacillus sphaericus Binary Toxin in Culex quinquefasciatus Populations by Molecular Screening

The activity of the Bacillus sphaericus binary (Bin) toxin on Culex quinquefasciatus larvae depends on its specific binding to the Cqm1 receptor, a midgut membrane-bound α-glucosidase. A 19-nucleotide deletion in the cqm1 gene (cqm1_REC) mediates high-level resistance to Bin toxin. Here, resistance in nontreated and B. sphaericus-treated field populations of C. quinquefasciatus was assessed through bioassays as well as a specific PCR assay designed to detect the cqm1_REC allele in individual larvae. Resistance ratios at 90% lethal concentration, gathered through bioassays, were close to 1 and indicate that the selected populations had similar levels of susceptibility to B. sphaericus, comparable to that of a laboratory colony. A diagnostic PCR assay detected the cqm1_REC allele in all populations investigated, and its frequency in two nontreated areas was 0.006 and 0.003, while the frequency in the B. sphaericus-treated population was significantly higher. Values of 0.053 and 0.055 were detected for two distinct sets of samples, and homozygote resistant larvae were found. Evaluation of Cqm1 expression in individual larvae through α-glucosidase assays corroborated the allelic frequency revealed by PCR. The data from this study indicate that the cqm1_REC allele was present at a detectable frequency in nontreated populations, while the higher frequency in samples from the treated area is, perhaps, correlated with the exposure to B. sphaericus. This is the first report of the molecular detection of a biolarvicide resistance allele in mosquito populations, and it confirms that the PCR-based approach is suitable to track such alleles in target populations.     

Signatures in SARS-CoV-2 spike protein conferring escape to neutralizing antibodies

Understanding SARS-CoV-2 evolution and host immunity is critical to control COVID-19 pandemics. At the core is an arms-race between SARS-CoV-2 antibody and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) recognition, a function of the viral protein spike. Mutations in spike impacting antibody and/or ACE2 binding are appearing worldwide, imposing the need to monitor SARS-CoV2 evolution and dynamics in the population. Determining signatures in SARS-CoV-2 that render the virus resistant to neutralizing antibodies is critical. We engineered 25 spike-pseudotyped lentiviruses containing individual and combined mutations in the spike protein, including all defining mutations in the variants of concern, to identify the effect of single and synergic amino acid substitutions in promoting immune escape. We confirmed that E484K evades antibody neutralization elicited by infection or vaccination, a capacity augmented when complemented by K417N and N501Y mutations. In silico analysis provided an explanation for E484K immune evasion. E484 frequently engages in interactions with antibodies but not with ACE2. Importantly, we identified a novel amino acid of concern, S494, which shares a similar pattern. Using the already circulating mutation S494P, we found that it reduces antibody neutralization of convalescent and post-immunization sera, particularly when combined with E484K and with mutations able to increase binding to ACE2, such as N501Y. Our analysis of synergic mutations provides a signature for hotspots for immune evasion and for targets of therapies, vaccines and diagnostics.     

Temperature sensitive influenza A virus genome replication results from low thermal stability of polymerase-cRNA complexes

Background

Although many vaccinia virus proteins have been identified and studied in detail, only a few studies have attempted a comprehensive survey of the protein composition of the vaccinia virion. These projects have identified the major proteins of the vaccinia virion, but little has been accomplished to identify the unknown or less abundant proteins. Obtaining a detailed knowledge of the viral proteome of vaccinia virus will be important for advancing our understanding of orthopoxvirus biology, and should facilitate the development of effective antiviral drugs and formulation of vaccines.

Results

In order to accomplish this task, purified vaccinia virions were fractionated into a soluble protein enriched fraction (membrane proteins and lateral bodies) and an insoluble protein enriched fraction (virion cores). Each of these fractions was subjected to further fractionation by either sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electophoresis, or by reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography. The soluble and insoluble fractions were also analyzed directly with no further separation. The samples were prepared for mass spectrometry analysis by digestion with trypsin. Tryptic digests were analyzed by using either a matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight tandem mass spectrometer, a quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometer, or a quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometer (the latter two instruments were equipped with electrospray ionization sources). Proteins were identified by searching uninterpreted tandem mass spectra against a vaccinia virus protein database created by our lab and a non-redundant protein database.

Conclusion

Sixty three vaccinia proteins were identified in the virion particle. The total number of peptides found for each protein ranged from 1 to 62, and the sequence coverage of the proteins ranged from 8.2% to 94.9%. Interestingly, two vaccinia open reading frames were confirmed as being expressed as novel proteins: E6R and L3L.     

Transcriptional changes in response to X chromosome dosage in the mouse: implications for X inactivation and the molecular basis of Turner Syndrome

Background

In many eukaryotes, microRNAs (miRNAs) bind to complementary sites in the 3'-untranslated regions (3'-UTRs) of target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and regulate their expression at the stage of translation. Recent studies have revealed that many miRNAs are evolutionarily conserved; however, the evolution of their target genes has yet to be systematically characterized. We sought to elucidate a set of conserved miRNA/target-gene pairs and to analyse the mechanism underlying miRNA-mediated gene regulation in the early stage of bilaterian evolution.

Results

Initially, we extracted five evolutionarily conserved miRNAs (let-7, miR-1, miR-124, miR-125/lin-4, and miR-34) among five diverse bilaterian animals. Subsequently, we designed a procedure to predict evolutionarily conserved miRNA/target-gene pairs by introducing orthologous gene information. As a result, we extracted 31 orthologous miRNA/target-gene pairs that were conserved among at least four diverse bilaterian animals; the prediction set showed prominent enrichment of orthologous miRNA/target-gene pairs that were verified experimentally. Approximately 84% of the target genes were regulated by three miRNAs (let-7, miR-1, and miR-124) and their function was classified mainly into the following categories: development, muscle formation, cell adhesion, and gene regulation. We used a reporter gene assay to experimentally verify the downregulation of six candidate pairs (out of six tested pairs) in HeLa cells.

Conclusions

The application of our new method enables the identification of 31 miRNA/target-gene pairs that were expected to have been regulated from the era of the common bilaterian ancestor. The downregulation of all six candidate pairs suggests that orthologous information contributed to the elucidation of the primordial set of genes that has been regulated by miRNAs; it was also an efficient tool for the elimination of false positives from the predicted candidates. In conclusion, our study identified potentially important miRNA-target pairs that were evolutionarily conserved throughout diverse bilaterian animals and that may provide new insights into early-stage miRNA functions.     

Extinction debt on oceanic islands

Habitat destruction is the leading cause of species extinctions. However, there is typically a time‐lag between the reduction in habitat area and the eventual disappearance of the remnant populations. These “surviving but ultimately doomed” species represent an extinction debt. Calculating the magnitude of such future extinction events has been hampered by potentially inaccurate assumptions about the slope of species–area relationships, which are habitat‐ and taxon‐specific. We overcome this challenge by applying a method that uses the historical sequence of deforestation in the Azorean Islands, to calculate realistic and ecologically‐adjusted species–area relationships. The results reveal dramatic and hitherto unrecognized levels of extinction debt, as a result of the extensive destruction of the native forest:>95%, in<600 yr. Our estimations suggest that more than half of the extant forest arthropod species, which have evolved in and are dependent on the native forest, might eventually be driven to extinction. Data on species abundances from Graciosa Island, where only a very small patch of secondary native vegetation still exists, as well as the number of species that have not been found in the last 45 yr, despite the extensive sampling effort, offer support to the predictions made. We argue that immediate action to restore and expand native forest habitat is required to avert the loss of numerous endemic species in the near future.