Comparative analysis of the heterogeneity of mononuclear cells present in adult and cord blood by simultaneous examination of multiple phenotypic characteristics

In an attempt to better relate specific membrane characteristics of human adult and cord blood lymphocytes to specific functional activities, the phenotypic differences that exist in these two populations have been examined. Cord blood cells have considerably more spontaneous suppressor cell activity than adult cells. A technique that allows cells to be examined simultaneously for their ability to ingest latex beads, react with specific monoclonal antisera, bind sheep erythrocytes, or react with the Fc portion of IgG was used. As well as assessing fresh populations, phenotypic changes that occur when such cells are held in culture or stimulated with phytohemagglutinin for 3 days were sought. Many differences were found when comparing these mononuclear populations. These included the observations that 12% of adult and 9% of cord blood E-rosette-forming cells ingest latex beads and that 9% of OKT3 reactive cells in both populations did not form E rosettes. In cord blood 58% of T cells that bind OKT8 do not form E rosettes. A similar percentage of cord blood T8-positive cells express a receptor for Fc gamma, such cells being very uncommon in adult blood. Four "monocyte" subpopulations were identified in both samples. One such population (an OKM1- and Fc gamma-positive, nonphagocytic cell) was three times more common in cord blood. In cord blood some OKM1-positive cells also appeared to be simultaneously OKT8 positive. These phenotypic variations forward populations that may be candidates responsible for the functional differences noted in vitro.     

Structure-guided discovery of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors

CDK2 inhibitors containing the related bicyclic heterocycles pyrazolopyrimidines and imidazopyrazines were discovered through high-throughput screening. Crystal structures of inhibitors with these bicyclic cores and two more related ones show that all but one have a common binding mode featuring two hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) to the backbone of the kinase hinge region. Even though ab initio computations indicated that the imidazopyrazine core would bind more tightly to the hinge, pyrazolopyrimidines gain an advantage in potency through participation of N4 in an H-bond network involving two catalytic residues and bridging water molecules. Further insight into inhibitor/CDK2 interactions was gained from analysis of additional crystal structures. Significant gains in potency were obtained by optimizing the fit of hydrophobic substituents to the gatekeeper region of the ATP binding site. The most potent inhibitors have good selectivity.     

Members of a unique histidine acid phosphatase family are conserved amongst a group of primitive eukaryotic human pathogens

Recently, we identified and characterized the genes encoding several distinct members of the histidine-acid phosphatase enzyme family from Leishmania donovani, a primitive protozoan pathogen of humans. These included genes encoding the heavily phosphorylated/glycosylated, tartrate-sensitive, secretory acid phosphatases (Ld SAcP-1 and Ld SAcP-2) and the unique, tartrate-resistant, externally-oriented, surface membrane-bound acid phosphatase (Ld MAcP) of this parasite. It had been previously suggested that these enzymes may play essential roles in the growth, development and survival of this organism. In this report, to further examine this hypothesis, we assessed whether members of the L. donovani histidine-acid phosphatase enzyme family were conserved amongst other pathogenic Leishmania and related trypanosomatid parasites. Such phylogenetic conservation would clearly indicate an evolutionary selection for this family of enzymes and strongly suggest and support an important functional role for acid phosphatases to the survival of these parasites. Results of pulsed field gel electrophoresis and Southern blotting showed that homologs of both the Ld SAcPs and Ld MAcP were present in each of the visceral and cutaneous Leishmania species examined (i.e. isolates of L. donovani, L. infantum,L. tropica, L. major and L. mexicana, respectively). Further, results of enzyme assays showed that all of these organisms expressed both tartrate-sensitive and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase activities. In addition, homologs of both the Ld SAcPs and Ld MAcP genes and their corresponding enzyme activities were also identified in two Crithidia species (C. fasciculata and C. luciliae) and in Leptomonas seymouri. In contrast, Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi and Phytomonas serpens had only very low levels of such enzyme activities. Cumulatively, results of this study showed that homologs of the Ld SAcPs and Ld MAcP are conserved amongst all pathogenic Leishmania sps. suggesting that they may play significant functional roles in the growth, development and survival of all members of this important group of human pathogens.     

High apparent dielectric constants in the interior of a protein reflect water penetration

A glutamic acid was buried in the hydrophobic core of staphylococcal nuclease by replacement of Val-66. Its pK(a) was measured with equilibrium thermodynamic methods. It was 4.3 units higher than the pK(a) of Glu in water. This increase was comparable to the DeltapK(a) of 4.9 units measured previously for a lysine buried at the same location. According to the Born formalism these DeltapK(a) are energetically equivalent to the transfer of a charged group from water to a medium of dielectric constant of 12. In contrast, the static dielectric constants of dry protein powders range from 2 to 4. In the crystallographic structure of the V66E mutant, a chain of water molecules was seen that hydrates the buried Glu-66 and links it with bulk solvent. The buried water molecules have never previously been detected in >20 structures of nuclease. The structure and the measured energetics constitute compelling and unprecedented experimental evidence that solvent penetration can contribute significantly to the high apparent polarizability inside proteins. To improve structure-based calculations of electrostatic effects with continuum methods, it will be necessary to learn to account quantitatively for the contributions by solvent penetration to dielectric effects in the protein interior.     

Differential effects of Nd-YAG laser on collagen and elastin production by chick embryo aortae in vitro. Relevance to laser angioplasty for removal of atherosclerotic plaques

Aortae from 17-day old chick embryos were subjected to irradiation with a Nd:YAG laser at energy densities varying from 1.2 - 4.7 X 10(3) J/cm2. The aortae were pulse-labeled in vitro with [3H]proline or [14C]valine, and the synthesis of collagenous polypeptides and soluble elastin was examined by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, followed by fluorography and quantitative scanning densitometry. Irradiation of the aortae with Nd:YAG laser resulted in inhibition of the synthesis of the extracellular matrix proteins. The production of collagen was inhibited to a considerably larger degree than the production of elastin. Thus, the biosynthetic pathway for collagen production appears to be more susceptible to laser inhibition than the corresponding pathway for elastin production. These observations may have relevance to laser angioplasty which has been proposed to be applicable for removal of atherosclerotic plaques in human vessels. Specifically, the results suggest that inhibition of the extracellular matrix production may result in weakening of the vessel wall with subsequent aneurysm formation and rupture.     

A common mechanism of cellular death induced by bactericidal antibiotics

Antibiotic mode-of-action classification is based upon drug-target interaction and whether the resultant inhibition of cellular function is lethal to bacteria. Here we show that the three major classes of bactericidal antibiotics, regardless of drug-target interaction, stimulate the production of highly deleterious hydroxyl radicals in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, which ultimately contribute to cell death. We also show, in contrast, that bacteriostatic drugs do not produce hydroxyl radicals. We demonstrate that the mechanism of hydroxyl radical formation induced by bactericidal antibiotics is the end product of an oxidative damage cellular death pathway involving the tricarboxylic acid cycle, a transient depletion of NADH, destabilization of iron-sulfur clusters, and stimulation of the Fenton reaction. Our results suggest that all three major classes of bactericidal drugs can be potentiated by targeting bacterial systems that remediate hydroxyl radical damage, including proteins involved in triggering the DNA damage response, e.g., RecA.     

Genetic analyses reveal independent domestication origins of Eurasian reindeer

Although there is little doubt that the domestication of mammals was instrumental for the modernization of human societies, even basic features of the path towards domestication remain largely unresolved for many species. Reindeer are considered to be in the early phase of domestication with wild and domestic herds still coexisting widely across Eurasia. This provides a unique model system for understanding how the early domestication process may have taken place. We analysed mitochondrial sequences and nuclear microsatellites in domestic and wild herds throughout Eurasia to address the origin of reindeer herding and domestication history. Our data demonstrate independent origins of domestic reindeer in Russia and Fennoscandia. This implies that the Saami people of Fennoscandia domesticated their own reindeer independently of the indigenous cultures in western Russia. We also found that augmentation of local reindeer herds by crossing with wild animals has been common. However, some wild reindeer populations have not contributed to the domestic gene pool, suggesting variation in domestication potential among populations. These differences may explain why geographically isolated indigenous groups have been able to make the technological shift from mobile hunting to large-scale reindeer pastoralism independently.     

RecA Protein from the extremely radioresistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans: expression, purification, and characterization

The RecA protein of Deinococcus radiodurans (RecA(Dr)) is essential for the extreme radiation resistance of this organism. The RecA(Dr) protein has been cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli and purified from this host. In some respects, the RecA(Dr) protein and the E. coli RecA (RecA(Ec)) proteins are close functional homologues. RecA(Dr) forms filaments on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) that are similar to those formed by the RecA(Ec). The RecA(Dr) protein hydrolyzes ATP and dATP and promotes DNA strand exchange reactions. DNA strand exchange is greatly facilitated by the E. coli SSB protein. As is the case with the E. coli RecA protein, the use of dATP as a cofactor permits more facile displacement of bound SSB protein from ssDNA. However, there are important differences as well. The RecA(Dr) protein promotes ATP- and dATP-dependent reactions with distinctly different pH profiles. Although dATP is hydrolyzed at approximately the same rate at pHs 7.5 and 8.1, dATP supports an efficient DNA strand exchange only at pH 8.1. At both pHs, ATP supports efficient DNA strand exchange through heterologous insertions but dATP does not. Thus, dATP enhances the binding of RecA(Dr) protein to ssDNA and the displacement of ssDNA binding protein, but the hydrolysis of dATP is poorly coupled to DNA strand exchange. The RecA(Dr) protein thus may offer new insights into the role of ATP hydrolysis in the DNA strand exchange reactions promoted by the bacterial RecA proteins. In addition, the RecA(Dr) protein binds much better to duplex DNA than the RecA(Ec) protein, binding preferentially to double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) even when ssDNA is present in the solutions. This may be of significance in the pathways for dsDNA break repair in Deinococcus.     

Structure and expression of AtS1, an Arabidopsis thaliana gene homologous to the S-locus related genes of Brassica

Summary Genetic and molecular analysis of the self-incompatibility locus (S-locus) of the crucifer Brassica has led to the characterization of a multigene family involved in pollen-stigma interactions. While the crucifer Arabidopsis thaliana does not have a self-incompatibility system, S-related sequences were detected in this species by cross-hybridization with Brassica DNA probes. In this paper, we show that an A. thaliana S-related sequence, designated AtS1, is expressed specifically in flower buds. Sequence analysis suggests that AtS1 encodes a secreted glycoprotein that is most similar to the Brassica S-locus related protein SLR1. As has been proposed for SLR1, this gene may be involved in determining some fundamental aspect of pollen-stigma interactions during pollination. The molecular and genetic advantages of the Arabidopsis system will provide many avenues for testing this hypothesis.     

Sterol-modulated glycolipid sorting occurs in niemann-pick C1 late endosomes

The Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1) protein and endocytosed low density lipoprotein (LDL)-derived cholesterol were shown to enrich separate subsets of vesicles containing lysosomal associated membrane protein 2. Localization of Rab7 in the NPC1-containing vesicles and enrichment of lysosomal hydrolases in the cholesterol-containing vesicles confirmed that these organelles were late endosomes and lysosomes, respectively. Lysobisphosphatidic acid, a lipid marker of the late endosomal pathway, was found in the cholesterol-enriched lysosomes. Recruitment of NPC1 to Rab7 compartments was stimulated by cellular uptake of cholesterol. The NPC1 compartment was shown to be enriched in glycolipids, and internalization of GalNAcbeta1-4[NeuAcalpha2-3]Galbeta1-4Glcbeta1-1'-ceramide (G(M2)) into endocytic vesicles depends on the presence of NPC1 protein. The glycolipid profiles of the NPC1 compartment could be modulated by LDL uptake and accumulation of lysosomal cholesterol. Expression in cells of biologically active NPC1 protein fused to green fluorescent protein revealed rapidly moving and flexible tubular extensions emanating from the NPC1-containing vesicles. We conclude that the NPC1 compartment is a dynamic, sterol-modulated sorting organelle involved in the trafficking of plasma membrane-derived glycolipids as well as plasma membrane and endocytosed LDL cholesterol.