Differential pH-dependent cellular uptake pathways among foamy viruses elucidated using dual-colored fluorescent particles

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: It is thought that foamy viruses (FVs) enter host cells via endocytosis because all FV glycoproteins examined display pH-dependent fusion activities. Only the prototype FV (PFV) glycoprotein has also significant fusion activity at neutral pH, suggesting that its uptake mechanism may deviate from other FVs. To gain new insights into the uptake processes of FV in individual live host cells, we developed fluorescently labeled infectious FVs. RESULTS: N-terminal tagging of the FV envelope leader peptide domain with a fluorescent protein resulted in efficient incorporation of the fluorescently labeled glycoprotein into secreted virions without interfering with their infectivity. Double-tagged viruses consisting of an eGFP-tagged PFV capsid (Gag-eGFP) and mCherry-tagged Env (Ch-Env) from either PFV or macaque simian FV (SFVmac) were observed during early stages of the infection pathway. PFV Env, but not SFVmac Env, containing particles induced strong syncytia formation on target cells. Both virus types showed trafficking of double-tagged virions towards the cell center. Upon fusion and subsequent capsid release into the cytosol, accumulation of naked capsid proteins was observed within four hours in the perinuclear region, presumably representing the centrosomes. Interestingly, virions harboring fusion-defective glycoproteins still promoted virus attachment and uptake, but failed to show syncytia formation and perinuclear capsid accumulation. Non-fused or non-fusogenic viruses are rapidly cleared from the cells by putative lysosomal degradation. Monitoring the fraction of viruses containing both Env and capsid signals as a function of time demonstrated that PFV virions fused within the first few minutes, whereas fusion of SFVmac virions was less pronounced and observed over the entire 90 minutes measured. CONCLUSIONS: The characterized double-labeled FVs described here provide new mechanistic insights into FV early entry steps, demonstrating that productive viral fusion occurs early after target cell attachment and uptake. The analysis highlights apparent differences in the uptake pathways of individual FV species. Furthermore, the infectious double-labeled FVs promise to provide important tools for future detailed analyses on individual FV fusion events in real time using advanced imaging techniques.     

Suppression of endotoxin mitogenicity of spleen cells by lipoxygenase inhibitors and its reversal by 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid

Abstract The effects of several inhibitors of lipoxygenases were investigated in murine spleen cell cultures activated with endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) It was found that these inhibitors interfere with the proliferative response of the cultures. Indomethacin, a specific cyclooxygenase inhibitor, had no such effect. Endotoxin induced the synthesis of tumour necrosis factor α in spleen cells which was prevented by treatment with a lipoxygenase inhibitor. The inhibition of the mitogenic effect of endotoxin could be reversed by addition of 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid. This was not the case with leukotriene B₄ and C₄ or 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. In contrast, these substances had inhibitory effects on the mitogenicity of spleen cells. It is suggested that 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid is involved in the development of the mitogenic reaction, possibly on the level of tumour necrosis factor α production of macrophages present in the cultures.     

The mglB sequence of Salmonella typhimurium LT2; promoter analysis by gene fusions and evidence for a divergently oriented gene coding for the mgl repressor

Summary The mglB gene of Salmonella typhimurium LT2 coding for the galactose-binding protein (GBP) was sequenced. We compared the deduced amino acid sequence with the GBP sequence of Escherichia coli K12. The mature proteins differ in only 19 of 309 amino acid residues, corresponding to 94% homology. Analysis of the mglB control region by promoter-probe vectors revealed that two promoters, P1 and P2, constitute the mgl control region (P _mgl ). P1 and P2 function in a synergistic way. P1 is the main promoter of the operon; its activity is 20 times the activity of P2. Both promoters are activated by the cyclic adenosine monophosphate catabolite activator protein (cAMP/CAP) complex. While P1 is inactive in the absence of the cAMP/CAP complex, there is residual activity of P2 under these conditions. Studies on the inducibility of the mglBAEC operon using multicopy plasmid promoter-probe vectors were hampered by the titration of the mgl repressor resulting in a partially constitutive expression of the mgl operon. The results indicate that only P1 is responding to induction by D-fucose. A weak promoter, P _D , within the P1 region but divergent to it was found. P _D is neither stimulated by the cAMP/CAP complex nor by D-fucose. We cloned the gene located downstream to P _D and found it to strongly repress the expression of the mgl operon. We termed this gene mglD. The presence of D-fucose abolished the repression caused by the plasmid-encoded mglD gene product.Abbreviations IPTG isopropyl-1-thic--D-galatopyranoside - ONPG 2-nitrophenyl--D-galatopyranoside - XG 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl--D-galatopyranoside - Kan^r Kanamycin resistance     

Corrosive extracellular polysaccharides of the rock-inhabiting model fungus Knufia petricola

Extremophiles - Melanised cell walls and extracellular polymeric matrices protect rock-inhabiting microcolonial fungi from hostile environmental conditions. How extracellular polymeric substances...     

Changes of methane and nitrous oxide emissions in a transition bog in central Germany (German National Park Harz Mountains) after rewetting

During the last decades, various renaturation programmes have been initialized to recover nutrient sink and ecological functions of peatlands by rewetting. Rewetting, however, often results in the formation of hotspots for methane (CH₄) emissions and in temporal dieback of local vegetation. The present study aimed at quantifying changes of CH₄ and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions in a peatland currently under continuous rewetting conditions. Emissions where studied at a permanently flooded site and a non-flooded peat site with fluctuating water tables by using common closed chamber method. The permanently flooded site revealed extremely high CH₄ emissions (up to 1195 mg C m^?2 d^?1) which were positively correlated with temperature, nutrient content, dissolved organic carbon and nitrogen concentration of the peat soil water. In contrast, the non-flooded peat site, with lower and fluctuating water tables (WT), showed significantly lower CH₄ emissions and an increasing trend of CH₄ release associated with a generally increasing WT caused by the progressing rewetting process. Lower N₂O emissions (<24 µg N m^?2 d^?1) were observed at the flooded site. By contrast, the non-flooded peat site with fluctuating WT showed significantly higher N₂O emissions (up to 4178 µg N m^?2 d^?1), in particular at high temperatures during summer time. The present results indicate that permanently flooded conditions during rewetting processes might cause higher CH₄ emissions compared to fluctuating WT which in contrast might enhance N₂O emissions. In total, however, no decreasing trend for CH₄ emissions throughout the five-year renaturation period could be found. At least for N₂O we observed a decreasing trend during rewetting.     

Identification of the 5-Hydroxytryptamine2C Receptor as a 60-kDa N-Glycosylated Protein in Choroid Plexus and Hippocampus

Abstract: The rat 5-hydroxytryptamine_2C (5-HT_2C) receptor was identified as N -glycosylated polypeptide of 60-kDa apparent molecular mass using antibodies against its putative third and fourth (C-terminal) cytoplasmic domain. To show that the polypeptides detected on western blots and by immunoprecipitation represent the 5-HT_2C receptor, binding studies of the 5-HT_2C ligand [³H]-mesulergine to immunoprecipitates from extracts of pig choroid plexus were performed. We demonstrate the presence of a signal sequence that was cleaved off during membrane insertion resulting in a 38-kDa polypeptide. During further maturation, the receptor was N -glycosylated at two sites via a 48-kDa intermediate. This intermediate was far more abundant in choroid plexus than in hippocampus and may represent an intracellular receptor reserve. After transfection of 5-HT_2C cDNAs into cultured cells, polypeptides were observed that differed from the ones found in vivo due to abnormal N -glycosylation and possibly other alterations depending on the system used. Thus the 5-HT_2C receptor expressed in cell lines may also differ in function from the receptor in its native tissue.     

Cloning of theHelicobacter pylori recA gene and functional characterization of its product

The RecA protein is a key enzyme involved in DNA recombination in bacteria. Using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification we cloned arecA homolog fromHelicobacter pylori. The gene revealed an open reading frame (ORF) encoding a putative protein of 37.6 kDa showing closest homology to theCampylobacter jejuni RecA (75.5% identity). A putative ribosome binding site and a near-consensus σ⁷⁰ promoter sequence was found upstream ofrec A. A second ORF, encoding a putative protein with N-terminal sequence homology to prokaryotic and eukaryotic enolases, is located directly downstream ofrecA. Compared to the wild-type strains, isogenicH. pylori recA deletion mutants of strains 69A and NCTC11637 displayed increased sensitivity to ultraviolet light and abolished general homologous recombination. The recombinantH. pylori RecA protein produced inEscherichia coli strain GC6 (recA ^?) was 38 kDa in size but inactive in DNA repair, whereas the corresponding protein inH. pylori 69A migrated at the greater apparent molecular weight of approx. 40 kDa in SDS-polyacrylamide gels. However, complementation of theH. pylori mutant using the clonedrecA gene on a shuttle vector resulted in a RecA protein of the original size and fully restored the general functions of the enzyme. These data can be best explained by a modification of RecA inH. pylori which is crucial for its function. The potential modification seems not to occur when the protein is produced inE. coli, giving rise to a smaller but inactive protein.