Clathrin-dependent and -independent internalization of plasma membrane sphingolipids initiates two Golgi targeting pathways

Sphingolipids (SLs) are plasma membrane constituents in eukaryotic cells which play important roles in a wide variety of cellular functions. However, little is known about the mechanisms of their internalization from the plasma membrane or subsequent intracellular targeting. We have begun to study these issues in human skin fibroblasts using fluorescent SL analogues. Using selective endocytic inhibitors and dominant negative constructs of dynamin and epidermal growth factor receptor pathway substrate clone 15, we found that analogues of lactosylceramide and globoside were internalized almost exclusively by a clathrin-independent ("caveolar-like") mechanism, whereas an analogue of sphingomyelin was taken up approximately equally by clathrin-dependent and -independent pathways. We also showed that the Golgi targeting of SL analogues internalized via the caveolar-like pathway was selectively perturbed by elevated intracellular cholesterol, demonstrating the existence of two discrete Golgi targeting pathways. Studies using SL-binding toxins internalized via clathrin-dependent or -independent mechanisms confirmed that endogenous SLs follow the same two pathways. These findings (a) provide a direct demonstration of differential SLs sorting into early endosomes in living cells, (b) provide a "vital marker" for endosomes derived from caveolar-like endocytosis, and (c) identify two independent pathways for lipid transport from the plasma membrane to the Golgi apparatus in human skin fibroblasts.     

Differential effects of isomeric incorporation of fluorophenylalanines into PvuII endonuclease

Incorporation of fluorine into proteins has long served as a means of probing structure and function, yet there are few studies that examine the impact of fluorine substitution, particularly at locations distant from the active sites of enzymes. The flexibility of isomeric fluorine incorporation at Phe is used to explore subtle substitution effects on enzyme activity and conformation. The unnatural amino acids o-, m-, and p-fluorophenylalanines were incorporated biosynthetically into the representative PvuII restriction endonuclease. Interestingly, m-fluoro-Phe-PvuII endonuclease exhibits very similar conformational stability to that of the native enzyme, but it exhibits a reproducible, 2-fold higher average specific activity. Given the level of incorporation and the distribution of species, the species of modified enzyme responsible for this increase in specific activity is most likely even faster. Further, moving the fluorine atom from the meta- to the para-position of Phe results in a 4-fold decrease in specific activity and a decrease in conformational stability of 1.5 kcal/mol. Since none of the Phe residues in PvuII endonuclease lies near the DNA recognition or catalytic sites, this differential behavior alludes to the impact of subtle changes in enzyme conformation on endonuclease activity and suggests novel ways to influence catalytic behavior.     

Investigating plant lipid biopolymers

This paper presents a review of the biological importance and occurrence of plant cutin, the main lipid biopolymer in higher plants. Its chemical composition and structure are reviewed and a short laboratory practical exercise on the extraction, purification and qualitative analysis of fruit cutin is presented.     

Growth-altering effects of sodium hypochlorite in cultured human dermal fibroblasts

Sodium hypochlorite, the most widely used antimicrobial active chlorine compound in chemical disinfection, is little used as an antiseptic in clinical practice. This study aimed to assess the capacity of hypochlorite to alter human dermal fibroblast growth in vitro in relation to the concentration and exposure time. Effects of decreasing concentrations of hypochlorite (0.5%-0.00025%) on fibroblast adherence capacity and proliferation, according to varying exposure times and fetal calf serum (FCS) concentrations were investigated combining XTT assay, which provides cytochemical quantification of metabolically-active cell number, and total cell protein content, an indirect method for assessing substrate-adhered cell number. Initial cytotoxicity was produced at 0.0075% hypochlorite within contact time of two hours, provoking concentration-dependent cell detachment. From 0.1% upwards, NaOCl exerted a profound cytotoxic effect on fibroblasts. At later stages (4 h) and concentrations > or = 0.01% hypochlorite produced dose-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction: cell survival progressively diminished from 71% to 10%. Cytotoxic effects were not significantly affected by exposure-time periods, probably because maximum chlorine is released within the first four hours. Hypochlorite concentrations from 0.005% to 0.00025% were found to have no inhibitory effects on cell growth; in fact, they appear to exhibit the opposite effect. Increments in protein content found after 24 h exposure ranged from 30% to 120% above control values. Hypochlorite is highly cytotoxic for fibroblasts at concentrations > or = 0.01% provoking concentration-dependent loss of cell adherence capacity and mitochondrial dysfunction. In contrast, a mitogenic effect was observed with concentrations < or = 0.005% which supports NaOCl as a source growth-promoting activity in cultured human fibroblasts. Hypochlorite proved to be a highly reactive molecule which inhibits or stimulates cell division according to the concentration.     

Removal of the carboxy terminus of beta-tubulin subunit produces lateral annealing of microtubules with different orientations

1. Tubulin, lacking the carboxy terminus region of its beta subunit assembles into composite microtubule structures showing opposite polarity. 2. Since in these polymers, microtubules are laterally bound, this type of interaction could lead to the generation of microtubules with different polarities, as those found in some cellular types.     

Magnesium metabolism in type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by cellular and extracellular Mg depletion. Epidemiologic studies showed a high prevalence of hypomagnesaemia and lower intracellular Mg concentrations in diabetic subjects. Insulin and glucose are important regulators of Mg metabolism. Intracellular Mg plays a key role in regulating insulin action, insulin-mediated-glucose uptake and vascular tone. Reduced intracellular Mg concentrations result in a defective tyrosine-kinase activity, post-receptorial impairment in insulin action, and worsening of insulin resistance in diabetic patients. Mg deficit has been proposed as a possible underlying common mechanism of the "insulin resistance" of different metabolic conditions. Low dietary Mg intake is also related to the development of type 2 diabetes. Benefits of Mg supplementation on metabolic profile in diabetic subjects have been found in most, but not all clinical studies, and larger prospective studies are needed to support the potential role of dietary Mg supplementation as a possible public health strategy in diabetes risk.     

Structural basis for the actin-binding function of missing-in-metastasis

The adaptor protein missing-in-metastasis (MIM) contains independent F- and G-actin binding domains, consisting, respectively, of an N-terminal 250 aa IRSp53/MIM homology domain (IMD) and a C-terminal WASP-homology domain 2 (WH2). We determined the crystal structures of MIM's IMD and that of its WH2 bound to actin. The IMD forms a dimer, with each subunit folded as an antiparallel three-helix bundle. This fold is related to that of the BAR domain. Like the BAR domain, the IMD has been implicated in membrane binding. Yet, comparison of the structures reveals that the membrane binding surfaces of the two domains have opposite curvatures, which may determine the type of curvature of the interacting membrane. The WH2 of MIM is longer than the prototypical WH2, interacting with all four subdomains of actin. We characterize a similar WH2 at the C terminus of IRSp53 and propose that in these two proteins WH2 performs a scaffolding function.     

Dietary contributions of the alien zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha in British freshwater fish suggest low biological resistance to their invasion

Hydrobiologia - Native communities can resist the establishment and invasion of alien species through consumptive and/or competitive interactions. The extent of consumptive resistance from...