454 Genome sequencing of Pseudoperonospora cubensis reveals effector proteins with a QXLR translocation motif

Pseudoperonospora cubensis is a biotrophic oomycete pathogen that causes downy mildew of cucurbits, a devastating foliar disease threatening cucurbit production worldwide. We sequenced P. cubensis genomic DNA using 454 pyrosequencing and obtained random genomic sequences covering approximately 14% of the genome, thus providing the first set of useful genomic sequence information for P. cubensis. Using bioinformatics approaches, we identified 32 putative RXLR effector proteins. Interestingly, we also identified 29 secreted peptides with high similarity to RXLR effectors at the N-terminal translocation domain, yet containing an R-to-Q substitution in the first residue of the translocation motif. Among these, a family of QXLR-containing proteins, designated as PcQNE, was confirmed to have a functional signal peptide and was further characterized as being localized in the plant nucleus. Internalization of secreted PcQNE into plant cells requires the QXLR-EER motif. This family has a large number of near-identical copies within the P. cubensis genome, is under diversifying selection at the C-terminal domain, and is upregulated during infection of plants, all of which are common characteristics of characterized oomycete effectors. Taken together, the data suggest that PcQNE are bona fide effector proteins with a QXLR translocation motif, and QXLR effectors are prevalent in P. cubensis. Furthermore, the massive duplication of PcQNE suggests that they might play pivotal roles in pathogen fitness and pathogenicity.     

Bau und Bewegung der Antennen von Calliphora erythrocephala

Summary The anatomy of the four antennal joints of Calliphora erythrocephala and their significance in the total movement of the antenna were investigated. Both the head-scapus joint (1) and the funiculus-arista joint (4) are virtually rigid and do not participate in the active movements of the antenna. The pedicellus can be moved actively about two axes in the scapus-pedicellus joint (2), a horizontal and a vertical one. Prior to flight the antenna is raised into flight position by rotating the pedicellus about the horizontal axis of the scapus-pedicellus joint (2). During flight drag from frontal air currents on the arista rotates the funiculus with respect to the pedicellus about the longitudinal axis common to the funiculus and the pedicellus-funiculus joint (3). This passive movement of the funiculus is probably perceived by receptors in the pedicellus: the organ of Johnston and a large sensillum campaniforme. Also during flight the pedicellus is rotated actively about the vertical (second) axis of the scapus-pedicellus joint (2). This active movement is opposite to the passive rotation of the funiculus and thus changes the angle of attack for the air currents acting on the arista.

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Mit Unterstützung der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft.     

Über den Umbau im wachsenden Knochen

Ohne Zusammenfassung Mit 7 Textabbildungen.     

Über die Verbindung von Epithel und Bindegewebe an der Zunge

Ohne Zusammenfassung     

Rhythmische Erregungen in den optischen Zentren von Calliphora erythrocephala

Zusammenfassung Die rhythmischen Aktionspotentiale in den optischen Ganglien der Schmeißfliege (Calliphora erythrocephala) werden untersucht.Wird das Komplexauge von Calliphora belichtet, so können vom Ganglion opticum II schnelle, rhythmische Aktionspotentiale, 'Belichtungsrhythme , abgegriffen werden (Abb. 1). Sie treten im Bereich physiologischer Temperaturen und Lichtintensitäten stets und unabhängig von Schädigungen auf. Sie sind die einzige Form von Erregung, die zwischen dem retinalen Bereich und dem Cerebralganglion nachgewiesen werden kann. Die Belichtungsrhythmen zeigen gesetzmäßige Abhängigkeiten von den Reizgrößen. Es ist daher wahrscheinlich, daß sie in die Kausalkette der bei Belichtung des Auges ablaufenden zentralen Vorgänge eingeschaltet sind.Die optischen Ganglien werden mit einer Doppelmikroelektrode abgetastet. Da die Spannung zwischen zwei eng benachbarten Elektroden in der Nähe der Spannungsquelle am größten sein muß, kann gezeigt werden, daß die Belichtungsrhythmen wahrscheinlich in der äußeren Körnerschicht des Ganglion opticum II entstehen (Abb. 14 und 15).Als Maß für die Größe der Belichtungsrhythmen wird die größte während einer Belichtung auftretende Amplitude gewählt, die 'Maximalamplitud ; sie hängt stetig und reproduzierbar von der Zahl belichteter Ommatidien, von der Lichtintensität und vom Adaptationszustand des Auges ab (Abb. 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 und 12).Die Amplituden der Belichtungsrhythmen klingen bei längerer Belichtung allmählich ab (Helladaptation), (Abb. 1C, Abb. 5). Die Heiladaptationszeit ist der Maximalamplitude proportional (Abb. 6, 8, 9 und 10). Wird die Belichtung vor dem völligen Abklingen der Rhythmen unterbrochen, so werden sie durch den Aus-Effekt des Retinogramms gehemmt und brechen sofort und vollkommen ab (Abb. 1 D). Die Dunkeladaptation ist selbst nach vorangegangener Belichtung mit sehr hohen Lichtintensitäten nach spätestens einer Minute abgeschlossen (Abb. 6 und 7).Die Frequenz der Belichtungsrhythmen liegt zwischen 100 sec^–1 und 250 sec^–1, sie nimmt mit steigender Temperatur zu (Tabelle 1). Die Frequenz ist unabhängig von der Lichtintensität, vom Adaptationszustand d von der Zahl belichteter Ommatidien.Während der einzelnen Belichtung zeigen die Rhythmen ein verschieden starkes Schwanken der Amplitude, eine Amplitudenmodulation. Die Modulation hängt vom Präparat und vom Präparationszustand ab.Durch den Vergleich der verschiedenen Modulationstypen und durch gleichzeitige Ableitung an mehreren Stellen des Ganglions können die physikalischen Überlagerungsvorgänge untersucht werden. Die Einzelschwingungen physiologischer Einheiten überlagern sich am gemeinsamen Ableitwiderstand zwischen den Elektroden. Durch die Art der Überlagerung wird die Modulationsform bestimmt. Sie hängt im besonderen von der Frequenz und der Phasenlage der Einzelrhythmen und von physiologischen Synchronisationsvorgängen ab (Abb. 1, 2 und 16).Auch wenn ein Bereich der Retina gereizt wird, der nur wenige Sinneszellen umfaßt, treten Belichtungsrhythmen wie bei großen Reizflächen auf (Abb. 12). Deshalb wird die Möglichkeit diskutiert, daß bereits die kleinste physiologische Einheit im Ganglion mit rhythmischer Erregung antwortet, die in ihrer Amplitude, nicht aber in ihrer Frequenz vom Reiz abhängt.Herrn Prof. Dr. H. Autrum danke ich für das stete Interesse, das er den Untersuchungen entgegengebracht hat. Die Untersuchungen wurden zum Teil mit Apparaten durchgeführt, die die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Herrn Prof. Autrum zur Verfügung stellte.     

Ernst Mayr: Biologist-historian

Ernst Mayr's historical writings began in 1935 with his essay Bernard Altum and the territory theory and have continued up through his monumentalGrowth of Biological Thought (1982) and hisOne Long Argument: Charles Darwin and the Genesis of Modern Evolutionary Thought (1991). Sweeping in their scope, forceful in their interpretation, enlisted on behalf of the clarification of modern concepts and of a broad view of biology, these writings provide both insights and challenges for the historian of biology. Mayr's general intellectual formation was guided by the GermanBildung ideal, with its emphasis on synthetic and comprehensive knowledge. His understanding of how to write history was inspired further by the example of the historian of ideas Arthur Lovejoy. Some strengths and limitations of this approach are explored here through attention to Mayr's treatment of the French biologist J.-B. Lamarck. It is contended that Mayr's contributions to the history of biology are not restricted to his own very substantial historical writings but also include his encouragement of other scholars, his development of an invaluable archive of scientific correspondence, and his insistence that historians who write about evolution and related subjects acquire an adequate understanding of the principles of Darwinian biology.This paper was originally delivered at the biennial meeting of the International Society for the History, Philosophy, and Social Studies of Biology, held in Brandeis in July 1993, in the special session organized by John Greene on Ernst Mayr's contributions to systematics, evolutionary theory, and the history and philosophy of biology. The paper is presented here with only slight modifications of the original, oral presentation. As indicated in the text, a full assessment of Mayr's historical work, including situating that work in the context of Mayr's other work and contemporary developments in the history of science, would require a much more extensive study than I have been able to undertake here.     

Molecular evidence for a fourth species within the Isotoma viridis group (Insecta, Collembola)

For identification of single species within the Isotoma viridis group, we present polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR–RFLP) as a fast and efficient DNA-based molecular method. We used five PCR primers amplifying the cytochrome oxidase II (COII) region (760 bp) of the mitochondrial DNA. The sequences clearly separated four species ( I. viridis , I. riparia , I. anglicana and I. caerulea ) out of samples from Norway, Sweden, Germany and Switzerland. Examination of genetic variation and phylogenetic relationship did not support the separation of two colour pattern forms of I. viridis into distinct species. For RFLP, several restriction enzymes were tested for their ability to produce not only species-specific restriction fragment patterns but to discriminate more than one species per enzyme used with as few cleavage sites as possible. Such a design should render a clear fragment pattern when performing a double digest. These demands appear to be fulfilled best by the combination of the restriction enzymes Mfe I, Nci I and one of Aci I, Bst EII, Nde I, or Sfc I. From the enzymes tested in a previous study, Ase I proved to be reliable, whereas Mbo I can no longer be recommended.     

Natural killer (NK) and lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cell functions from healthy dogs and 29 dogs with a variety of spontaneous neoplasms

To investigate natural killer (NK) and lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cell functions from 10 healthy dogs and 29 dogs with a variety of spontaneous neoplasms, large granular lymphocytes (LGLs) from blood samples were separated by a 58.5% Percoll density gradient. LGLs were stimulated with a low dose of recombinant human interleukin 2 (rhIL-2) for 7 days. Cytotoxicity of effector cells against the susceptible CTAC cell line was measured before and after stimulation. Compared with those before stimulation, the percentage of LGLs after stimulation with rhIL-2 was found to be significantly increased (P<0.01) in both dogs with tumors and controls. However, the increase was significantly higher in control animals, indicating a defect in proliferation ability of NK cells in canine tumor patients. After stimulation with rhIL-2, lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cell activity in dogs with tumors was significantly lower (P<0.01) when compared with controls. Reduced cytotoxicity of rhIL-2–activated NK cells in dogs with tumors seems to be attributable to the presence of a diminished proliferative capacity of NK cells and a decreased ability of LAK cells to lyse target cells. Further knowledge of the precise function of IL-2–activated NK cells in dogs with tumors may help to optimize new and therapeutically beneficial treatment strategies in canine and human cancer patients. Our findings suggest that the dog could also serve as a relevant large animal model for cancer immunotherapy with IL-2.     

Complex determinants in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope gp120 mediate CXCR4-dependent infection of macrophages

Host cell range, or tropism, combined with coreceptor usage defines viral phenotypes as macrophage tropic using CCR5 (M-R5), T-cell-line tropic using CXCR4 (T-X4), or dually lymphocyte and macrophage tropic using CXCR4 alone or in combination with CCR5 (D-X4 or D-R5X4). Although envelope gp120 V3 is necessary and sufficient for M-R5 and T-X4 phenotypes, the clarity of V3 as a dominant phenotypic determinant diminishes in the case of dualtropic viruses. We evaluated D-X4 phenotype, pathogenesis, and emergence of D-X4 viruses in vivo and mapped genetic determinants in gp120 that mediate use of CXCR4 on macrophages ex vivo. Viral quasispecies with D-X4 phenotypes were associated significantly with advanced CD4+-T-cell attrition and commingled with M-R5 or T-X4 viruses in postmortem thymic tissue and peripheral blood. A D-X4 phenotype required complex discontinuous genetic determinants in gp120, including charged and uncharged amino acids in V3, the V5 hypervariable domain, and novel V1/V2 regions distinct from prototypic M-R5 or T-X4 viruses. The D-X4 phenotype was associated with efficient use of CXCR4 and CD4 for fusion and entry but unrelated to levels of virion-associated gp120, indicating that gp120 conformation contributes to cell-specific tropism. The D-X4 phenotype describes a complex and heterogeneous class of envelopes that accumulate multiple amino acid changes along an evolutionary continuum. Unique gp120 determinants required for the use of CXCR4 on macrophages, in contrast to cells of lymphocytic lineage, can provide targets for development of novel strategies to block emergence of X4 quasispecies of human immunodeficiency virus type 1.