Experimental investigation of the external nitrification biological nutrient removal activated sludge (ENBNRAS) system

A systematic lab-scale experimental investigation is reported for the external nitrification (EN) biological nutrient removal (BNR) activated sludge (ENBNRAS) system, which is a combined fixed and suspended medium system. The ENBNRAS system was proposed to intensify the treatment capacity of BNR-activated sludge (BNRAS) systems by addressing two difficulties often encountered in practice: (a) the long sludge age for nitrification requirement; and (b) sludge bulking. In the ENBNRAS system, nitrification is transferred from the aerobic reactor in the suspended medium activated sludge system to a fixed medium nitrification system. Thus, the sludge age of the suspended medium activated sludge system can be reduced from 20 to 25 days to 8 to 10 days, resulting in a decrease in reactor volume per ML wastewater treated of about 30%. Furthermore, the aerobic mass fraction can also be reduced from 50% to 60% to <30% and concommitantly the anoxic mass fraction can be increased from 25% to 35% to >55% (if the anaerobic mass fraction is 15%), and thus complete denitrification in the anoxic reactors becomes possible. Research indicates that both the short sludge age and complete denitrification could ameliorate anoxic aerobic (AA) or low food/microorganism (F/M) ratio filamentous bulking, and hence reduce the surface area of secondary settling tanks or increase the treatment capacity of existing systems. The lab-scale experimental investigations indicate that the ENBNRAS system can obtain: (i) very good chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal, even with an aerobic mass fraction as low as 20%; (ii) high nitrogen removal, even for a wastewater with a high total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN)/COD ratio, up to 0.14; (iii) adequate settling sludge (diluted sludge volume index [DSVI] <100 mL/g); and (iv) a significant reduction in oxygen demand.     

Half a World Apart? Overlap in Nonbreeding Distributions of Atlantic and Indian Ocean Thin-Billed Prions

Distant populations of animals may share their non-breeding grounds or migrate to distinct areas, and this may have important consequences for population differentiation and dynamics. Small burrow-nesting seabirds provide a suitable case study, as they are often restricted to safe breeding sites on islands, resulting in a patchy breeding distribution. For example, Thin-billed prions Pachyptila belcheri have two major breeding colonies more than 8,000 km apart, on the Falkland Islands in the south-western Atlantic and in the Kerguelen Archipelago in the Indian Ocean. We used geolocators and stable isotopes to compare at-sea movements and trophic levels of these two populations during their non-breeding season, and applied ecological niche models to compare environmental conditions in the habitat. Over three winters, birds breeding in the Atlantic showed a high consistency in their migration routes. Most individuals migrated more than 3000 km eastwards, while very few remained over the Patagonian Shelf. In contrast, all Indian Ocean birds migrated westwards, resulting in an overlapping nonbreeding area in the eastern Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean. Geolocators and isotopic signature of feathers indicated that prions from the Falklands moulted at slightly higher latitudes than those from Kerguelen Islands. All birds fed on low trophic level prey, most probably crustaceans. The phenology differed notably between the two populations. Falkland birds returned to the Patagonian Shelf after 2-3 months, while Kerguelen birds remained in the nonbreeding area for seven months, before returning to nesting grounds highly synchronously and at high speed. Habitat models identified sea surface temperature and chlorophyll a concentration as important environmental parameters. In summary, we show that even though the two very distant populations migrate to roughly the same area to moult, they have distinct wintering strategies: They had significantly different realized niches and timing which may contribute to spatial niche partitioning.     

Early Clinical and Subclinical Visual Evoked Potential and Humphrey's Visual Field Defects in Cryptococcal Meningitis

Cryptococcal induced visual loss is a devastating complication in survivors of cryptococcal meningitis (CM). Early detection is paramount in prevention and treatment. Subclinical optic nerve dysfunction in CM has not hitherto been investigated by electrophysiological means. We undertook a prospective study on 90 HIV sero-positive patients with culture confirmed CM. Seventy-four patients underwent visual evoked potential (VEP) testing and 47 patients underwent Humphrey''s visual field (HVF) testing. Decreased best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was detected in 46.5% of patients. VEP was abnormal in 51/74 (68.9%) right eyes and 50/74 (67.6%) left eyes. VEP P100 latency was the main abnormality with mean latency values of 118.9 (±16.5) ms and 119.8 (±15.7) ms for the right and left eyes respectively, mildly prolonged when compared to our laboratory references of 104 (±10) ms (p<0.001). Subclinical VEP abnormality was detected in 56.5% of normal eyes and constituted mostly latency abnormality. VEP amplitude was also significantly reduced in this cohort but minimally so in the visually unimpaired. HVF was abnormal in 36/47 (76.6%) right eyes and 32/45 (71.1%) left eyes. The predominant field defect was peripheral constriction with an enlarged blind spot suggesting the greater impact by raised intracranial pressure over that of optic neuritis. Whether this was due to papilloedema or a compartment syndrome is open to further investigation. Subclinical HVF abnormalities were minimal and therefore a poor screening test for early optic nerve dysfunction. However, early optic nerve dysfunction can be detected by testing of VEP P100 latency, which may precede the onset of visual loss in CM.     

Central venous concentrations of immunoreactive prostaglandins E,F, and 6-keto-prostaglandin F1 in eclampsia.

Concentrations of prostaglandins E, F, and 6-keto-prostaglandin F1 alpha were estimated in central venous blood and amniotic fluid in 21 women with eclampsia and 16 healthy pregnant controls. Central venous blood concentrations of 6-keto-prostaglandin F1 alpha and prostaglandin E were significantly lower in patients than controls before delivery and remained reduced for at least 48 hours after delivery. Low concentrations of prostaglandins E and 6-keto-prostaglandin F1 alpha are probably directly related to the pathogenesis of eclampsia.     

Genetic structure of the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in south-eastern Africa

Despite an on-going struggle to conserve the endangered black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) since the 1980s, huge capital investment and several genetic surveys, the level of genetic structure and connectivity among populations in southern Africa is not well understood. Here, we undertake a major population genetic study of black rhinoceros in the Zimbabwe Lowveld, an area inhabited by over half of that country’s original Zambezi descendants plus one large population sourced from the relict KwaZulu stock of South Africa. Using nuclear microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA data, we found much higher levels of genetic diversity in the indigenous Zimbabwean populations, where observed multilocus heterozygosity was 0.54 versus 0.40 in KwaZulu, and maternal haplotype diversity was 0.77 versus 0.03. We show, for the first time, that both gene pools can be differentiated from each other on the basis of nuclear markers. This, along with the discovery of recent gene flow between all Lowveld populations, suggests that Zimbabwean and South African gene pools were prehistorically connected.     

The absence of fire can cause a lag phase: The invasion dynamics of Banksia ericifolia (Proteaceae)

The transition from a species introduction to an invasion often spans many decades (a lag phase). However, few studies have determined the mechanisms underlying lag phases. Such a mechanistic understanding is vital if the potential ecosystem‐level impacts are to be predicted and the invasion risks to be managed proactively. Here we examine Banksia ericifolia, introduced for floriculture to South Africa, as a case study. We found 18 sites where the species has been planted, with self‐sustaining (naturalized) populations at four sites, and an invasive population at one site. The invasion originated from around 100 individuals planted 35 years ago; after several fires this population has grown to approximately 10 000 plants covering about 127 ha. The current invasion of B. ericifolia already has ecosystem‐level impacts, for example the nectar available to bird pollinators has more than doubled, potentially disrupting native pollination networks. If fires occurred at the other naturalized sites we anticipate populations would rapidly spread and densify with invaded areas ultimately become banksia‐dominated woodlands. Indeed the only site other than the invasive site where fire has occurred regularly is already showing signs of rapid population growth and spread. However, recruitment is mainly immediately post fire and no seed bank accumulates in the soil, mechanical control of adult plants is cheap and effective, and immature plants are easily detected. This study is a first in illustrating the importance of fire in driving lag phases and provides a valuable example for why it is essential to determine the mechanisms that mediate lag phases in introduced plant species. Serotinous species that have been introduced to areas where fire is suppressed could easily be misinterpreted as low risk species whilst they remain in a lag phase, but they can represent a major invasion risk.     

Recent Acquisition of Helicobacter pylori by Baka Pygmies

Both anatomically modern humans and the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori originated in Africa, and both species have been associated for at least 100,000 years. Seven geographically distinct H. pylori populations exist, three of which are indigenous to Africa: hpAfrica1, hpAfrica2, and hpNEAfrica. The oldest and most divergent population, hpAfrica2, evolved within San hunter-gatherers, who represent one of the deepest branches of the human population tree. Anticipating the presence of ancient H. pylori lineages within all hunter-gatherer populations, we investigated the prevalence and population structure of H. pylori within Baka Pygmies in Cameroon. Gastric biopsies were obtained by esophagogastroduodenoscopy from 77 Baka from two geographically separated populations, and from 101 non-Baka individuals from neighboring agriculturalist populations, and subsequently cultured for H. pylori. Unexpectedly, Baka Pygmies showed a significantly lower H. pylori infection rate (20.8%) than non-Baka (80.2%). We generated multilocus haplotypes for each H. pylori isolate by DNA sequencing, but were not able to identify Baka-specific lineages, and most isolates in our sample were assigned to hpNEAfrica or hpAfrica1. The population hpNEAfrica, a marker for the expansion of the Nilo-Saharan language family, was divided into East African and Central West African subpopulations. Similarly, a new hpAfrica1 subpopulation, identified mainly among Cameroonians, supports eastern and western expansions of Bantu languages. An age-structured transmission model shows that the low H. pylori prevalence among Baka Pygmies is achievable within the timeframe of a few hundred years and suggests that demographic factors such as small population size and unusually low life expectancy can lead to the eradication of H. pylori from individual human populations. The Baka were thus either H. pylori-free or lost their ancient lineages during past demographic fluctuations. Using coalescent simulations and phylogenetic inference, we show that Baka almost certainly acquired their extant H. pylori through secondary contact with their agriculturalist neighbors.     

Age of the Association between Helicobacter pylori and Man

When modern humans left Africa ca. 60,000 years ago (60 kya), they were already infected with Helicobacter pylori, and these bacteria have subsequently diversified in parallel with their human hosts. But how long were humans infected by H. pylori prior to the out-of-Africa event? Did this co-evolution predate the emergence of modern humans, spanning the species divide? To answer these questions, we investigated the diversity of H. pylori in Africa, where both humans and H. pylori originated. Three distinct H. pylori populations are native to Africa: hpNEAfrica in Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan speakers, hpAfrica1 in Niger-Congo speakers and hpAfrica2 in South Africa. Rather than representing a sustained co-evolution over millions of years, we find that the coalescent for all H. pylori plus its closest relative H. acinonychis dates to 88–116 kya. At that time the phylogeny split into two primary super-lineages, one of which is associated with the former hunter-gatherers in southern Africa known as the San. H. acinonychis, which infects large felines, resulted from a later host jump from the San, 43–56 kya. These dating estimates, together with striking phylogenetic and quantitative human-bacterial similarities show that H. pylori is approximately as old as are anatomically modern humans. They also suggest that H. pylori may have been acquired via a single host jump from an unknown, non-human host. We also find evidence for a second Out of Africa migration in the last 52,000 years, because hpEurope is a hybrid population between hpAsia2 and hpNEAfrica, the latter of which arose in northeast Africa 36–52 kya, after the Out of Africa migrations around 60 kya.