Colonization of novel White Sands habitat is associated with changes in lizard anti‐predator behaviour

Colonization of novel habitats is often associated with differences in ecological community composition. For small diurnal animals, differences in predator diversity and abundance can lead to behavioural shifts in the novel habitat. The eastern fence lizard Sceloporus undulatus (Bosc and Daudin, 1801) recently colonized the gypsum dunes of White Sands, a predator‐poor community relative to the predator‐rich community of the surrounding Chihuahuan dark‐soil habitat. We used field experiments to assess S. undulatus anti‐predator behaviour in white‐sand versus dark‐soil habitats, and used laboratory assays to determine whether behavioural differences could be mediated by hormonal regulation. Overall, we found that white‐sand lizards were less vigilant but more wary than their dark‐soil counterparts; it took them longer to detect a simulated predator, but once detected they were more likely to retreat from their perches than dark‐soil lizards. At the proximate level, differences in anti‐predator behaviour could not be explained by differences in plasma hormone levels (corticosterone and testosterone); we detected elevated corticosterone for lizards in our stress treatment relative to control treatment, but found no differences between habitats in baseline or acute corticosterone levels. At the evolutionary level, we suggest that differences in anti‐predator behaviour may be explained by differences across habitats in predation environment, habituation, and/or the cost of retreating. Our study implicates changes in predator community composition in mediating ecological divergence in behaviour. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 103 , 657–667.     

Decline in a dominant invertebrate species contributes to altered carbon cycling in a low-diversity soil ecosystem

Low-diversity ecosystems cover large portions of the Earth's land surface, yet studies of climate change on ecosystem functioning typically focus on temperate ecosystems, where diversity is high and the effects of individual species on ecosystem functioning are difficult to determine. We show that a climate-induced decline of an invertebrate species in a low-diversity ecosystem could contribute to significant changes in carbon (C) cycling. Recent climate variability in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica is associated with changes in hydrology, biological productivity, and community composition of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. One of the greatest changes documented in the dry valleys is a 65% decrease in the abundance of the dominant soil invertebrate ( Scottnema lindsayae , Nematoda) between 1993 and 2005, illustrating sensitivity of biota in this ecosystem to small changes in temperature. Globally, such declines are expected to have significant influences over ecosystem processes such as C cycling. To determine the implications of this climate-induced decline in nematode abundance on soil C cycling we followed the fate of a ¹³C tracer added to soils in Taylor Valley, Antarctica. Carbon assimilation by the dry valley nematode community contributed significantly to soil C cycling (2–7% of the heterotrophic C flux). Thus, the influence of a climate-induced decline in abundance of a dominant species may have a significant effect on ecosystem functioning in a low-diversity ecosystem.     

Global decomposition experiment shows soil animal impacts on decomposition are climate‐dependent

Climate and litter quality are primary drivers of terrestrial decomposition and, based on evidence from multisite experiments at regional and global scales, are universally factored into global decomposition models. In contrast, soil animals are considered key regulators of decomposition at local scales but their role at larger scales is unresolved. Soil animals are consequently excluded from global models of organic mineralization processes. Incomplete assessment of the roles of soil animals stems from the difficulties of manipulating invertebrate animals experimentally across large geographic gradients. This is compounded by deficient or inconsistent taxonomy. We report a global decomposition experiment to assess the importance of soil animals in C mineralization, in which a common grass litter substrate was exposed to natural decomposition in either control or reduced animal treatments across 30 sites distributed from 43°S to 68°N on six continents. Animals in the mesofaunal size range were recovered from the litter by Tullgren extraction and identified to common specifications, mostly at the ordinal level. The design of the trials enabled faunal contribution to be evaluated against abiotic parameters between sites. Soil animals increase decomposition rates in temperate and wet tropical climates, but have neutral effects where temperature or moisture constrain biological activity. Our findings highlight that faunal influences on decomposition are dependent on prevailing climatic conditions. We conclude that (1) inclusion of soil animals will improve the predictive capabilities of region‐ or biome‐scale decomposition models, (2) soil animal influences on decomposition are important at the regional scale when attempting to predict global change scenarios, and (3) the statistical relationship between decomposition rates and climate, at the global scale, is robust against changes in soil faunal abundance and diversity.     

Carbon source accounting for fish using combined DNA and stable isotope analyses in a regulated lowland river weir pool

Determining the source and flow of carbon, energy and nutrients through food webs is essential for understanding ecological connectivity and thus determining the impact of management practices on biodiversity. We combined DNA sequencing, microarrays and stable isotope analyses to test whether this approach would allow us to resolve the carbon flows through food webs in a weir pool on the lower Murray River, a highly impacted, complex and regulated ecosystem in southern Australia. We demonstrate that small fish in the Murray River consume a wide range of food items, but that a significant component of carbon and nitrogen entering the food web during dry periods in summer, but not spring, is derived from nonconventional sources other than in-channel primary producers. This study also showed that isotopic analyses alone cannot distinguish food sources and that a combined approach is better able to elucidate food-consumer dynamics. Our results highlight that a major river ecosystem, stressed by reduced environmental flows, can rapidly undergo significant and previously undetected changes that impact on the ecology of the system as a whole.     

Internal Potassium and Chloride Activities and the Effects of Acetylcholine on Identifiable <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aplysia</Emphasis> Neurones

It has been suggested that some inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in the abdominal ganglion cells of Aplysia may reflect activation of the sodium pump by acetylcholine. Measurement of electrolyte activity, however, shows that the effect probably arises from changes in membrane permeability to potassium.     

Terrestrial versus aquatic phenotypes correlate with hydrological predictability of habitats in a semiterrestrial salamander (Urodela, Plethodontidae)

Terrestrial adaptations by small, desmognathine salamanders in Appalachian stream communities have been viewed as evolved responses to large, aquatic, predatory congeners. We tested the role of moisture in the development of adaptive phenotypes in the small, semiterrestrial Desmognathus ocoee . We measured indicators of relative terrestrial vs. aquatic phenotypes (i.e. tolerance of desiccation, anatomical depression of body/tail) using individuals from stream habitats having different flow regimes within each of three geographical locations. Salamanders from intermittent, first-order streams exhibited greater desiccation tolerance, took longer to reach tolerance limits, and had more anatomically depressed bodies/tails than those from second-order, perennial streams, regardless of location. Phenotypes of salamanders from second-order streams showed aquatic tendencies. Phenotypic variation was consistent with relative habitat stability and not with relative abundance of large congeners. MtDNA analysis revealed that individuals grouped together based on geographical location and not habitat type, implying that the observed phenotypic differences arose in situ at each geographical location. Recent phylogenetic reconstructions of the Desmognathus indicate that large, aquatic forms are derived, and their appearance corresponds with the late Cenozoic development of modern Appalachian topography. We propose that radiation of desmognathine lifestyles and associated phenotypes tracked the formation of moisture-stability gradients associated with the creation of cool, wet, montane habitats.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 91 , 227–238.     

High rates of net primary production and turnover of floating grasses on the Amazon floodplain: implications for aquatic respiration and regional CO2 flux

We investigated whether rates of net primary production (NPP) and biomass turnover of floating grasses in a central Amazon floodplain lake (Lake Calado) are consistent with published evidence that CO₂ emissions from Amazon rivers and floodplains are largely supplied by carbon from C4 plants. Ground‐based measurements of species composition, plant growth rates, plant densities, and areal biomass were combined with low altitude videography to estimate community NPP and compare expected versus observed biomass at monthly intervals during the aquatic growth phase (January–August). Principal species at the site were Oryza perennis (a C3 grass), Echinochloa polystachya, and Paspalum repens (both C4 grasses). Monthly mean daily NPP of the mixed species community varied from 50 to 96 g dry mass m^?2 day^?1, with a seasonal average (±1SD) of 64±12 g dry mass m^?2 day^?1. Mean daily NPP (±1SE) for P. repens and E. polystachya was 77±3 and 34±2 g dry mass m^?2 day^?1, respectively. Monthly loss rates of combined above‐ and below‐water biomass ranged from 31% to 75%, and averaged 49%. Organic carbon losses from aquatic grasses ranged from 30 to 34 g C m^?2 day^?1 from February to August. A regional extrapolation indicated that respiration of this carbon potentially accounts for about half (46%) of annual CO₂ emissions from surface waters in the central Amazon, or about 44% of gaseous carbon emissions, if methane flux is included.     

A conservation paradox for the 21st century: the European wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus,an invasive alien and an endangered native species

• 1 This review highlights the status of the European wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus, which is threatened within its native range and yet is a highly successful colonizer across its worldwide, introduced range.
• 2 The European wild rabbit is a keystone species in Iberia, and the survival of a range of threatened predator species, including the Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus and Spanish imperial eagle Aquila aldabertii, is dependent upon the restoration of rabbit populations. Although not native to the UK, the rabbit also performs significant ecosystem services for nationally rare UK species, by maintaining short sward heights in heathland and grassland ecosystems, and serving as a prey item for populations of predators.
• 3 We identify the European wild rabbit as an excellent model to demonstrate the wide range of complex effects that an introduced mammalian species may exert on ecosystems to which it has been introduced. These effects include habitat degradation following overgrazing, competition with native mammals and facilitating meso‐predator release and hyperpredation.
• 4 We also show that rabbit eradication from some sites may generate more problems than are solved because of the impacts of trophic cascades stemming from dependence on rabbits by native predator assemblages.