Ancient large-scale genome duplications: phylogenetic and linkage analyses shed light on chordate genome evolution

Paralogous genes from several families were found in four human chromosome regions (4p16, 5q33-35, 8p12-21, and 10q24-26), suggesting that their common ancestral region underwent several rounds of large- scale duplication. Searches in the EMBL databases, followed by phylogenetic analyses, showed that cognates (orthologs) of human duplicated genes can be found in other vertebrates, including bony fishes. In contrast, within each family, only one gene showing the same high degree of similarity with all the duplicated mammalian genes was found in nonvertebrates (echinoderms, insects, nematodes). This indicates that large-scale duplications occurred after the echinoderms/chordates split and before the bony vertebrate radiation. It has been suggested that two rounds of gene duplication occurred in the vertebrate lineage after the separation of Amphioxus and craniate (vertebrates + Myxini) ancestors. Before these duplications, the genes that have led to the families of paralogous genes in vertebrates must have been physically linked in the craniate ancestor. Linkage of some of these genes can be found in the Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans genomes, suggesting that they were linked in the triploblast Metazoa ancestor.      

Endogenous chloride channels of insect sf9 cells. Evidence for coordinated activity of small elementary channel units

The endogenous Cl- conductance of Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells was studied 20-35 h after plating out of either uninfected cells or cells infected by a baculovirus vector carrying the cloned beta-galactosidase gene (beta-Gal cells). With the cation Tris+ in the pipette and Na+ in the bath, the reversal potential of whole-cell currents was governed by the prevailing Cl- equilibrium potential and could be fitted by the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation with similar permeabilities for uninfected and beta-Gal cells. In the frequency range 0.12 < f < 300 Hz, the power density spectrum of whole-cell Cl- currents could be fitted by three Lorentzians. Independent of membrane potential, >50% of the total variance of whole-cell current fluctuations was accounted for by the low frequency Lorentzian (fc = 0.40 +/- 0.03 Hz, n = 6). Single-Cl- channels showed complex gating kinetics with long lasting (seconds) openings interrupted by similar long closures. In the open state, channels exhibited fast burst-like closures. Since the patches normally contained more than a single channel, it was not possible to measure open and closed dwell-time distributions for comparing single-Cl- channel activity with the kinetic features of whole-cell currents. However, the power density spectrum of Cl- currents of cell-attached and excised outside-out patches contained both high and low frequency Lorentzian components, with the corner frequency of the slow component (fc = 0.40 +/- 0.02 Hz, n = 4) similar to that of whole-cell current fluctuations. Chloride channels exhibited multiple conductance states with similar Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz-type rectification. Single-channel permeabilities covered the range from approximately 0.6.10(-14) cm5/s to approximately 6.10(-14) cm3/s, corresponding to a limiting conductance (gamma 150/150) of approximately 3.5 pS and approximately 35 pS, respectively. All states reversed near the same membrane potential, and they exhibited similar halide ion selectivity, P1 > PCl approximately PBr. Accordingly, Cl- current amplitudes larger than current flow through the smallest channel unit resolved seem to result from simultaneous open/shut events of two or more channel units.     

In vivo and in vitro processing of seed reserve protein in the endoplasmic reticulum: evidence for two glycosylation steps

Cotyledons of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) synthesize large amounts of the reserve protein phaseolin. The polypeptides are synthesized on membrane-bound polysomes, pass through the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and accumulate in protein bodies. For a study of the biosynthesis and processing of phaseolin, developing cotyledons were labeled with radioactive amino acids, glucosamine and mannose, and isolated fractions (polysomal RNA, polysomes, and rough ER) were used for in vitro protein synthesis. Newly synthesized phaseolin present in the ER of developing cotyledons can be fractioned into four glycopolypeptides by SDS PAGE. In vitro synthesis with polysomal RNA results in the formation of two polypeptides by polysome run-off shows that glycosylation is a co-translational event. The two unglycosylated polypeptides formed by polysome run-off are slightly smaller than the two polypeptides formed by in vitro translation of isolated RNA, indicating that a signal peptide may be present on these polypeptides. Run-off synthesis with rough ER produces a pattern of four polypeptides similar to the one obtained by in vivo labeling. The two abundant glycopolypeptides formed by polysome run-off. This result indicates the existence of a second glycosylation event for the abundant polypeptides. Inhibition of glycosylation by Triton X-100 during chain-completion with rough ER was used to show that these two glycosylation steps normally occur sequentially. Both glycosylation steps are inhibited by tunicamycin. Analysis of carhohydrate to protein ratios of the different polypeptides and of trypsin digests of polypeptides labeled with [(3)H]glucosamine confirmed the conclusion that some glycosylated polypeptides contain two oligosaccharide chains, while others contain only one. An analysis of tryptic peptide maps shows that each of the unglycosylated polypeptides is the precursor for one glycosylated polypeptide with one oligosaccharide chain and one with two oligosaccharide chains.     

The effects of cholesterol inclusion on the molecular organisation of bimolecular lipid membranes

Dielectric measurements on planar egg phosphatidylcholine bilayers formed from n-hexadecane solutions indicate that these bilayers contain very low equilibrium concentrations of alkane. In 100 mM KCl the capacitance of the hydrophobic region was found to be 7.0 ±0.2 mF/m². The addition of cholesterol (at 2:1 mole ratio) was found to affect only marginally the capacitance of the hydrophobic region of such bilayers. Precise measurements of the frequency dependence of the bilayer impedance at very low frequencies now allow the resolution of several electrically distinct substructural regions within the bilayer. Examination of the effects of cholesterol inclusion upon the electrical parameters of these substructural regions indicate that cholesterol spans the acetyl region (i.e. the region containing the glycerol bridge of the phosphatidylcholine molecules in the bilayer) with the hydroxyl group of the cholesterol molecules located inbetween the phosphate group and the glycerol oxygens of the phosphatidylcholine molecules. The capacitance of the hydrophobic region of both phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylcholine/cholesterol bilayers formed from n-hexadecane solutions was found to decrease slightly as the external KCl concentration was decreased.     

Cultured endothelial cells produce heparinlike inhibitor of smooth muscle cell growth

Using cultured cells from bovine and rat aortas, we have examined the possibility that endothelial cells might regulate the growth of vascular smooth muscle cells. Conditioned medium from confluent bovine aortic endothelial cells inhibited the proliferation of growth-arrested smooth muscle cells. Conditioned medium from exponential endothelial cells, and from exponential or confluent smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts, did not inhibit smooth muscle cell growth. Conditioned medium from confluent endothelial cells did not inhibit the growth of endothelial cells or fibroblasts. In addition to the apparent specificity of both the producer and target cell, the inhibitory activity was heat stable and not affected by proteases. It was sensitive flavobacterium heparinase but not to hyaluronidase or chondroitin sulfate ABC lyase. It thus appears to be a heparinlike substance. Two other lines of evidence support this conclusion. First, a crude isolate of glycosaminoglycans (TCA-soluble, ethanol-precipitable material) from endothelial cell-conditioned medium reconstituted in 20 percent serum inhibited smooth muscle cell growth; glycosaminoglycans isolated from unconditioned medium (i.e., 0.4 percent serum) had no effect on smooth muscle cell growth. No inhibition was seen if the glycosaminoglycan preparation was treated with heparinase. Second, exogenous heparin, heparin sulfate, chondroitin sulfate B (dermatan sulfate), chondroitin sulfate ABC, and hyaluronic acid were added to 20 percent serum and tested for their ability to inhibit smooth muscle cell growth. Heparin inhibited growth at concentrations as low as 10 ng/ml. Other glycosaminoglycans had no effect at doses up to 10 μg/ml. Anticoagulant and non- anticoagulant heparin were equally effective at inhibiting smooth muscle cell growth, as they were in vivo following endothelial injury (Clowes and Karnovsk. Nature (Lond.). 265:625-626, 1977; Guyton et al. Circ. Res. 46:625-634, 1980), and in vitro following exposure of smooth muscle cells to platelet extract (Hoover et al. Circ. Res. 47:578-583, 1980). We suggest that vascular endothelial cells may secrete a heparinlike substance in vivo which may regulate the growth of underlying smooth muscle cells.     

Perturbations to lipid bilayers by spectroscopic probes as determined by dielectric measurements

Dielectric measurements on lecithin/cholesterol bimolecular lipid membranes have indicated that the series of extrinsic fluorescent probe molecules, the $\text{n-(9-}\text{anthroyloxy}\text{)}$ fatty acids, cause significant perturbation to the bilayer structure at concentrations equivalent to those used in fluorescence experiments (0.1 mol%). Perturbations were observed in the capacitance and conductance of the electrically distinct substructural regions of the bilayer that were consistent with the putative location of the probe molecules. Inclusion of stearic acid decreased the thickness of the hydrocarbon region of the membrane, presumably by expanding the average surface area per unit membrane mass, and also significantly disrupted the surface regions. The attachment of the anthroyloxy moiety to position 2 of a fatty acid accentuated both these effects. Attachment at position 12 had the reverse effect by increasing the volume of the hydrocarbon region without further disturbance of the surface organisation. The 9-positioned probe had an intermediate effect. The degree of perturbation by the 2-positioned probe was dependent on the probe concentration within the range (probe:lipid) 1:1000 to 1:10 000. The technique therefore detects perturbation of structure at probe levels which are lower than those commonly used in fluorescence-labelling experiments.     

Aromatase inhibition by R 76 713: a kinetic analysis in rat ovarian homogenates

Reaction kinetics of the aromatase enzyme and of a new nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor, R 76 713 (6-[(4-chlorophenyl)(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-methyl]-1-methyl-1H- benzotriazole), were studied in ovarian homogenates obtained from pregnant mare's serum gonadotropin (PMSG)-injected female Wistar rats. The Km (Michaelis constant) of the aromatase enzyme with androstenedione as the substrate was 47 +/- 13 nM; for testosterone as the substrate, a value of 159 +/- 10 nM was found. In the presence of increasing concentrations of R 76 713, the Km increased while the Vmax (maximal velocity of enzyme-catalyzed reaction) remained unchanged. Using androstenedione and testosterone as the substrate, Lineweaver-Burk analysis of the data showed a Ki (dissociation constant of the enzyme-inhibitor complex) for R 76 713 of 0.7 +/- 0.3 nM and 1.6 +/- 0.4 nM, respectively. R 76 713 appeared to competitively inhibit the rat ovarian aromatase.     

Aromatase in the human choriocarcinoma JEG-3: inhibition by R 76 713 in cultured cells and in tumors grown in nude mice

The aromatase enzyme and its inhibition by R 76 713 were characterized in the JEG-3 choriocarcinoma cell line in culture and in JEG-3 tumors grown in nude mice. Optimal cell culture parameters and enzyme reaction conditions for the determination of aromatase activity were established. Under these conditions, in vitro JEG-3 aromatase was inhibited by R 76 713 with IC50-values of 7.6 +/- 0.5 nM and 2.7 +/- 1.1 nM using 500 nM of androstenedione and testosterone as substrate respectively. The Km-value of the aromatase enzyme with androstenedione as substrate was 62 +/- 19 nM; with testosterone as substrate, a value of 166 +/- 27 nM was found. In the presence of increasing concentrations of R 76 713, the Km-values increased while the Vmax remained unchanged. Using androstenedione and testosterone as substrate Lineweaver-Burk analysis of the data showed Ki-values for R 76 713 of 0.43 +/- 0.06 nM and 0.47 +/- 0.39 nM respectively. R 76 713 appeared to competitively inhibit the JEG-3 aromatase. Aromatase could easily be measured in homogenates of JEG-3 tumors grown in nude mice and showed Km-values similar to those found for JEG-3 cells in vitro. IC50-values for inhibition of tumor aromatase by R 76 713 were also similar to those found in cultured cells. Tumor aromatase measured ex vivo, 2 h after a single oral administration of R 76 713 was dose-dependently inhibited. An ED50-value of 0.05 mg/kg was calculated. The JEG-3 choriocarcinoma proved to be a useful aromatase model enabling the comparative study of aromatase inhibition in vitro and in vivo.     

Substructure of the glomerular slit diaphragm in freeze-fractured normal rat kidney

In the renal glomerulus, the narrow slits between adjacent epithelial podocytes are bridged by a diaphragm (2, 8, 11). In rat and mouse kidneys fixed by perfusion with tannic acid and glutaraldehyde (TAG), it has recently been discovered that this diaphragm has a highly ordered, isoporous substructure (9). It consists of a regular array of alternating cross bridges extending from the podocyte plasma membranes to a centrally running filament. This zipperlike pattern results in two rows of rectangular pores, approximately 40 X 140 A in cross section, dimensions consistent with the proposed role of the diaphragm as an important filtration barrier to plasma proteins (6). In the present study, we found in freeze-cleaved and in freeze-etched normal rat glomeruli that the surface of the slit diaphragm has an appearance conforming to the pattern found in sectioned material.     

Studies on the mechanism for entry of vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein g mRNA into membrane-bound polyribosome complexes

Glycoprotein mRNA (G mRNA) of vesicular stomatitis virus is synthesized in the cytosol fraction of infected HeLa cells. Shortly after synthesis, this mRNA associates with 40S ribosomal subunits and subsequently forms 80S monosomes in the cytosol fraction. The bulk of labeled G mRNA is then found in polysomes associated with the membrane, without first appearing in the subunit or monomer pool of the membrane-bound fraction. Inhibition of the initiation of protein synthesis by pactamycin or muconomycin A blocks entry of newly synthesized G m RNA into membrane-bound polysomes. Under these circumstances, labeled G mRNA accumulates into the cytosol. Inhibition of the elongation of protein synthesis by cucloheximide, however, allows entry of 60 percent of newly synthesized G mRNA into membrane-bound polysomes. Furthermore, prelabeled G mRNA associated with membrane-bound polysomes is released from the membrane fraction in vivo by pactamycin or mucomycon A and in vitro by 1mM puromycin - 0.5 M KCI. This release is not due to nonspecific effects of the drugs. These results demonstrate that association of G mRNA with membrane-bound polysomes is dependent upon polysome formation and initiation of protein synthesis. Therefore, direct association of the 3' end of G mRNA with the membrane does not appear to be the initial event in the formation of membrane-bound polysomes.