The Rediscovery of a Long Described Species Reveals Additional Complexity in Speciation Patterns of Poeciliid Fishes in Sulfide Springs

The process of ecological speciation drives the evolution of locally adapted and reproductively isolated populations in response to divergent natural selection. In Southern Mexico, several lineages of the freshwater fish species of the genus Poecilia have independently colonized toxic, hydrogen sulfide-rich springs. Even though ecological speciation processes are increasingly well understood in this system, aligning the taxonomy of these fish with evolutionary processes has lagged behind. While some sulfide spring populations are classified as ecotypes of Poecilia mexicana, others, like P. sulphuraria, have been described as highly endemic species. Our study particularly focused on elucidating the taxonomy of the long described sulfide spring endemic, Poecilia thermalis Steindachner 1863, and investigates if similar evolutionary patterns of phenotypic trait divergence and reproductive isolation are present as observed in other sulfidic species of Poecilia. We applied a geometric morphometric approach to assess body shape similarity to other sulfidic and non-sulfidic fish of the genus Poecilia. We also conducted phylogenetic and population genetic analyses to establish the phylogenetic relationships of P. thermalis and used a population genetic approach to determine levels of gene flow among Poecilia from sulfidic and non-sulfidic sites. Our results indicate that P. thermalis'' body shape has evolved in convergence with other sulfide spring populations in the genus. Phylogenetic analyses placed P. thermalis as most closely related to one population of P. sulphuraria, and population genetic analyses demonstrated that P. thermalis is genetically isolated from both P. mexicana ecotypes and P. sulphuraria. Based on these findings, we make taxonomic recommendations for P. thermalis. Overall, our study verifies the role of hydrogen sulfide as a main factor shaping convergent, phenotypic evolution and the emergence of reproductive isolation between Poecilia populations residing in adjacent sulfidic and non-sulfidic environments.     

A cost of being large: genetically large yellow dung flies lose out in intra-specific food competition

Most life history traits are positively influenced by body size, while disadvantages of large size are poorly documented. To investigate presumed intrinsic costs of large body size in yellow dung flies (Scathophaga stercoraria; Diptera: Scathophagidae), we allowed larvae from replicate lines artificially selected for small and large body size for 21 generations to compete directly with each other at 20°C (benign) and 25°C (stressful) and low and high food (dung) availability. Greater mortality of large line flies was evident at low food independent of temperature, suggesting a cost of fast growth and/or long development for genetically large flies during larval scramble competition under food limitation. Our results are congruent with a previous study assessing mortality when competing within body size lines, so no additional mechanisms affecting scramble or contest behavior of larvae need be invoked to explain the results obtained beyond the costs of longer development and faster growth. Thus, artificial selection producing larger yellow dung flies than occur in nature revealed some, albeit weak mortality costs of large body size that otherwise might have remained cryptic. We conclude, however, that these costs are insufficient to explain the evolutionary limits of large body size in this species given persistently strong fecundity and sexual selection favoring large size in both sexes.     

Air–liquid interface cultures enhance the oxygen supply and trigger the structural and functional differentiation of intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC)

The specific function of the epithelium as critical barrier between the intestinal lumen and the organism’s internal microenvironment is reflected by permanent maintenance of intercellular junctions and cellular polarity. The intestinal epithelial cells are responsible for absorption of nutritional components, facing mechanical stress and a changing oxygen supplementation via blood stream. Oxygen itself can regulate the barrier and the absorptive function of the epithelium. Therefore, we compared the dish cell culture, the transwell-like membrane culture and the oxygen enriched air–liquid interface (ALI) culture. We demonstrated strong influence of the different culture conditions on morphology and function of intestinal porcine epithelial cell lines in vitro. ALI culture resulted in a significant increase in cell number, epithelial cell layer thickness and expression as well as apical localisation of the microvilli-associated protein villin. Remarkable similarities regarding the morphological parameters were observed between ALI cultures and intestinal epithelial cells in vivo. Furthermore, the functional analysis of protein uptake and degradation by the epithelial cells demonstrated the necessity of sufficient oxygen supply as achieved in ALI cultures. Our study is the first report providing marked evidence that optimised oxygen supply using ALI cultures directly affects the morphological differentiation and functional properties of intestinal epithelial cells in vitro.     

Measuring E(GSH) and H2O2 with roGFP2-based redox probes

Redox biochemistry plays an important role in a wide range of cellular events. However, investigation of cellular redox processes is complicated by the large number of cellular redox couples, which are often not in equilibrium with one another and can vary significantly between subcellular compartments and cell types. Further, it is becoming increasingly clear that different redox systems convey different biological information; thus it makes little sense to talk of an overall "cellular redox state". To gain a more differentiated understanding of cellular redox biology, quantitative, redox couple-specific, in vivo measurements are necessary. Unfortunately our ability to investigate specific redox couples or redox-reactive molecules with the necessary degree of spatiotemporal resolution is very limited. The development of genetically encoded redox biosensors offers a promising new way to investigate redox biology. Recently developed redox-sensitive green fluorescent proteins (roGFPs), genetically fused to redox-active proteins, allow rapid equilibration of the roGFP moiety with a specific redox couple. Two probes based on this principle are now available: Grx1-roGFP2 for the measurement of glutathione redox potential (E(GSH)) and roGFP2-Orp1 for measuring changes in H(2)O(2) concentration. Here we provide a detailed protocol for the use of these probes in both yeast and mammalian systems using either plate-reader- or microscopy-based measurements.     

Secretagogues differentially activate endoplasmic reticulum stress responses in pancreatic acinar cells

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress leads to the accumulation of misfolded proteins in the ER lumen and initiates the unfolded protein response (UPR). Components of the UPR are important in pancreatic development, and recent studies have indicated that the UPR is activated in the arginine model of acute pancreatitis. However, the effects of secretagogues on UPR components in the pancreas are unknown. The present study aimed to examine the effects of different types and concentrations of secretagogues on acinar cell function and specific components of the UPR. Rat pancreatic acini were stimulated with the CCK analogs CCK8 (10 pM-10 nM) or JMV-180 (10 nM-10 microM) or with bombesin (1-100 nM). Components of the UPR, including chaperone BiP expression, PKR-like ER kinase (PERK) phosphorylation, X box-binding protein 1 (XBP1) splicing, and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein homologous protein (CHOP) expression, were measured, as were effects on amylase secretion and intracellular trypsin activation. CCK8 generated a biphasic secretion dose-response curve, and high concentrations increased intracellular active trypsin levels. In contrast, JMV-180 and bombesin secretion dose-response curves were monophasic, and high concentrations did not increase intracellular trypsin activity. All three secretagogues increased BiP levels and XBP1 splicing. However, only supraphysiological levels of CCK8 associated with inhibited amylase secretion and trypsin activation stimulated PERK phosphorylation and expression of CHOP. The effects of CCK8 on UPR components were rapid, occurring within 5-20 min. In conclusion, ER stress response mechanisms appear to be involved in both pancreatic physiology and pathophysiology, and future efforts should be directed at understanding the roles of these mechanisms in the pancreas.     

The molecular origin and evolution of dim‐light vision in mammals

The nocturnal origin of mammals is a longstanding hypothesis that is considered instrumental for the evolution of endothermy, a potential key innovation in this successful clade. This hypothesis is primarily based on indirect anatomical inference from fossils. Here, we reconstruct the evolutionary history of rhodopsin—the vertebrate visual pigment mediating the first step in phototransduction at low‐light levels—via codon‐based model tests for selection, combined with gene resurrection methods that allow for the study of ancient proteins. Rhodopsin coding sequences were reconstructed for three key nodes: Amniota, Mammalia, and Theria. When expressed in vitro, all sequences generated stable visual pigments with λ_MAX values similar to the well‐studied bovine rhodopsin. Retinal release rates of mammalian and therian ancestral rhodopsins, measured via fluorescence spectroscopy, were significantly slower than those of the amniote ancestor, indicating altered molecular function possibly related to nocturnality. Positive selection along the therian branch suggests adaptive evolution in rhodopsin concurrent with therian ecological diversification events during the Mesozoic that allowed for an exploration of the environment at varying light levels.