Epistemic artefacts: on the uses of complexity in anthropology

Distinctions between the ‘simple’ and the ‘complex’ have enjoyed a long and varied career in anthropology. Simplicity was once part of a collective fantasy about what life was like elsewhere, tingeing studies of tribal life with human longing for simpler ways of being. With the reflexive turn and the rise of cultural critique, simplicity has been all but excommunicated in favour of widespread diagnoses of complexity. In this article, I tease out some transformations in the uses of complexity in anthropology, and weave in some critical responses to these uses, spanning many decades, from within the discipline. I pay special attention to recent critiques by anthropologists who are beginning to grow weary of complexity as both an end‐in‐itself for scholarship and an empirical diagnosis. For these critics, complexity is deeply entwined with anthropological methods and knowledge practices. Drawing on these critical views, I suggest that complexity may be an epistemological artefact, rather than something that can be diagnosed ‘out there’, and offer a way of reframing complexity as a ‘dominant problematic’ in anthropology and beyond.     

Multiple Propofol-binding Sites in a γ-Aminobutyric Acid Type A Receptor (GABAAR) Identified Using a Photoreactive Propofol Analog

Propofol acts as a positive allosteric modulator of γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABA_ARs), an interaction necessary for its anesthetic potency in vivo as a general anesthetic. Identifying the location of propofol-binding sites is necessary to understand its mechanism of GABA_AR modulation. [³H]2-(3-Methyl-3H-diaziren-3-yl)ethyl 1-(phenylethyl)-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylate (azietomidate) and R-[³H]5-allyl-1-methyl-5-(m-trifluoromethyl-diazirynylphenyl)barbituric acid (mTFD-MPAB), photoreactive analogs of 2-ethyl 1-(phenylethyl)-1H-imidazole-5-carboxylate (etomidate) and mephobarbital, respectively, have identified two homologous but pharmacologically distinct classes of intersubunit-binding sites for general anesthetics in the GABA_AR transmembrane domain. Here, we use a photoreactive analog of propofol (2-isopropyl-5-[3-(trifluoromethyl)-3H-diazirin-3-yl]phenol ([³H]AziPm)) to identify propofol-binding sites in heterologously expressed human α1β3 GABA_ARs. Propofol, AziPm, etomidate, and R-mTFD-MPAB each inhibited [³H]AziPm photoincorporation into GABA_AR subunits maximally by ∼50%. When the amino acids photolabeled by [³H]AziPm were identified by protein microsequencing, we found propofol-inhibitable photolabeling of amino acids in the β3-α1 subunit interface (β3Met-286 in β3M3 and α1Met-236 in α1M1), previously photolabeled by [³H]azietomidate, and α1Ile-239, located one helical turn below α1Met-236. There was also propofol-inhibitable [³H]AziPm photolabeling of β3Met-227 in βM1, the amino acid in the α1-β3 subunit interface photolabeled by R-[³H]mTFD-MPAB. The propofol-inhibitable [³H]AziPm photolabeling in the GABA_AR β3 subunit in conjunction with the concentration dependence of inhibition of that photolabeling by etomidate or R-mTFD-MPAB also establish that each anesthetic binds to the homologous site at the β3-β3 subunit interface. These results establish that AziPm as well as propofol bind to the homologous intersubunit sites in the GABA_AR transmembrane domain that binds etomidate or R-mTFD-MPAB with high affinity.     

A Multi-Area Stochastic Model for a Covert Visual Search Task

Decisions typically comprise several elements. For example, attention must be directed towards specific objects, their identities recognized, and a choice made among alternatives. Pairs of competing accumulators and drift-diffusion processes provide good models of evidence integration in two-alternative perceptual choices, but more complex tasks requiring the coordination of attention and decision making involve multistage processing and multiple brain areas. Here we consider a task in which a target is located among distractors and its identity reported by lever release. The data comprise reaction times, accuracies, and single unit recordings from two monkeys’ lateral interparietal area (LIP) neurons. LIP firing rates distinguish between targets and distractors, exhibit stimulus set size effects, and show response-hemifield congruence effects. These data motivate our model, which uses coupled sets of leaky competing accumulators to represent processes hypothesized to occur in feature-selective areas and limb motor and pre-motor areas, together with the visual selection process occurring in LIP. Model simulations capture the electrophysiological and behavioral data, and fitted parameters suggest that different connection weights between LIP and the other cortical areas may account for the observed behavioral differences between the animals.     

A New Comparative-Genomics Approach for Defining Phenotype-Specific Indicators Reveals Specific Genetic Markers in Predatory Bacteria

Predatory bacteria seek and consume other live bacteria. Although belonging to taxonomically diverse groups, relatively few bacterial predator species are known. Consequently, it is difficult to assess the impact of predation within the bacterial realm. As no genetic signatures distinguishing them from non-predatory bacteria are known, genomic resources cannot be exploited to uncover novel predators. In order to identify genes specific to predatory bacteria, we developed a bioinformatic tool called DiffGene. This tool automatically identifies marker genes that are specific to phenotypic or taxonomic groups, by mapping the complete gene content of all available fully-sequenced genomes for the presence/absence of each gene in each genome. A putative ‘predator region’ of ~60 amino acids in the tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) protein was found to probably be a predator-specific marker. This region is found in all known obligate predator and a few facultative predator genomes, and is absent from most facultative predators and all non-predatory bacteria. We designed PCR primers that uniquely amplify a ~180bp-long sequence within the predators’ TDO gene, and validated them in monocultures as well as in metagenetic analysis of environmental wastewater samples. This marker, in addition to its usage in predator identification and phylogenetics, may finally permit reliable enumeration and cataloguing of predatory bacteria from environmental samples, as well as uncovering novel predators.     

Bioremediation of oil by marine microbial mats

Cyanobacterial mats developing in oil-contaminated sabkhas along the African coasts of the Gulf of Suez and in the pristine Solar Lake, Sinai, were collected for laboratory studies. Samples of both mats showed efficient degradation of crude oil in the light, followed by development of an intense bloom of Phormidium spp. and Oscillatoria spp. Isolated cyanobacterial strains, however, did not degrade crude oil in axenic cultures. Strains of sulfate-reducing bacteria and aerobic heterotrophs were capable of degrading model compounds of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Results indicate that degradation of oil was done primarily by aerobic heterotrophic bacteria. The oxygenic photosynthesis of oil-insensitive cyanobacteria supplied the molecular oxygen for the efficient aerobic metabolism of organisms, such as Marinobacter sp. The diurnal shifts in environmental conditions at the mat surface, from highly oxic conditions in the light to anaerobic sulfide-rich habitat in the dark, may allow the combined aerobic and anaerobic degradation of crude oil at the mat surface. Hence, coastal cyanobacterial mats may be used for the degradation of coastline oil spills. Oxygen microelectrodes detected a significant inhibition of photosynthetic activity subsequent to oil addition. This prevailed for a few hours and then rapidly recovered. In addition, shifts in bacterial community structure following exposure to oil were determined by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of PCR-amplified fractions of 16S rRNA from eubacteria, cyanobacteria and sulfate-reducing bacteria. Since the mats used for the present study were obtained from oil-contaminated environments, they were believed to be preequilibrated for petroleum remediation. The mesocosm system at Eilat provided a unique opportunity to study petroleum degradation by mats formed under different salinities (up to 21%). These mats, dominated by cyanobacteria, can serve as close analogues to the sabkhas contaminated during the Gulf War in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Electronic Publication     

Influx of γ-Aminobutyric Acid and α-Aminoisobutyric Acid into Mouse Cerebrum Slices Incubated in a Pyruvate Medium with or without Added Glucose or Glucose Analogues Compared with Influx from a Glucose Medium

Concentrative influx of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and α-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB) into incubated mouse cerebrum slices is decreased when pyruvate is substituted for glucose. Influx of GABA from pyruvate medium is not increased by presence of glucose, 2-deoxy-d -glucose (2-DOG), or 3-O-methyl-d -glucose (3-O-MeG). Influx of AIB is restored to the rate from glucose medium if 2-DOG is present initially, but is not restored if 2-DOG is added with AIB. Influx is not restored if 3-O-MeG is present initially, but is restored if 3-O-MeG is added with AIB. Influx is restored if glucose is present initially or is added with AIB.     

Somatostatin inhibits adrenergic and cholinergic neurotransmission in smooth muscle.

Somatostatin reduced the response to field stimulation in the guinea pig ileum and reduced the spontaneous contractions in the rabbit jejunum, an effect that was blocked by tetrodotoxin. Somatostatin also inhibited field stimulated alpha adrenergic contractions in the rat vas deferens and rabbit ear artery. However, the responses to direct application of either acetylcholine in the ileum or to norepinephrine in the ear artery or vas deferens were not affected by somatostatin. These results strongly suggest that somatostatin inhibits neuronal release of cholinergic and adrenergic transmitter substances in smooth muscle.     

An endopeptidase associated with bovine neurohypophysis secretory granules cleaves pro-ocytocin/neurophysin peptide at paired basic residues

The octacosapeptide sequence [Tyr18] pro-ocytocin/neurophysin (1-18)NH2 [pro-OT/Np(1-18)NH2] was synthesized and used as substrate to detect endoprotease(s) possibly involved in the processing of this precursor in bovine hypothalamo-neurohypophyseal tract. An endopeptidase (58 Kda) was detected in Lysates made from highly purified neurosecretory granules. This protease which cleaves the peptide bond on the carboxyl side of the Lys-Arg doublet, and no single basic residue, generates both OT-Gly10-Lys11-Arg12+Ala13-Val-Leu-Asp-Leu-Tyr18 (NH2) from the octacosapeptide substrate. In addition, a carboxypeptidase B-like activity converting OT-Gly10-Lys11-Arg12 into OT-Gly10 was detected in the same granule Lysates. It is hypothesized that a combination of these endoprotease and carboxypeptidase B-like activities together with the amidating enzyme of secretory granules might participate in the cleavage and processing of pro-OT/Np in vivo.     

Caveolin-1 null mice develop cardiac hypertrophy with hyperactivation of p42/44 MAP kinase in cardiac fibroblasts

Recently, development ofa caveolin-1-deficient (Cav-1 null) mouse model has allowed thedetailed analysis of caveolin-1's function in the context of awhole animal. Interestingly, we now report that the hearts ofCav-1 null mice are markedly abnormal, despite the fact that caveolin-1is not expressed in cardiac myocytes. However, caveolin-1 is abundantlyexpressed in the nonmyocytic cells of the heart, i.e., cardiacfibroblasts and endothelia. Quantitative imaging studies of Cav-1 nullhearts demonstrate a significantly enlarged right ventricular cavityand a thickened left ventricular wall with decreased systolic function.Histological analysis reveals myocyte hypertrophy withinterstitial/perivascular fibrosis. Because caveolin-1 is thought toact as a negative regulator of the p42/44 MAP kinase cascade, weperformed Western blot analysis with phospho-specific antibodies thatonly recognize activated ERK1/2. As predicted, the p42/44 MAP kinasecascade is hyperactivated in Cav-1 null heart tissue (i.e.,interstitial fibrotic lesions) and isolated cardiac fibroblasts. Inaddition, endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthase levels aredramatically upregulated. Thus loss of caveolin-1 expression drivesp42/44 MAP kinase activation and cardiac hypertrophy.