Toward Sustaining Women in Careers in Core Laboratories—A Workshop Review Including Recommendations from the Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities

Review of “From Doctorate to Dean or Director: Sustaining Women Through Critical Transition Points in Science, Engineering, and Medicine” (workshop held by the Committee on Women in Science, Engineering, and Medicine of the National Academies, Washington DC, September 18–19, 2008).Approximately 50% of the membership in the Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities (ABRF) includes scientists working in core facilities, i.e., a biological resource facility. A core facility, whether it resides in an academic, government, or industrial sector, provides affordable access to technologies and expertise in such fields as proteomics-related techniques, mass spectrometry, DNA sequencing and analysis, bioinformatics, and N-terminal protein sequence analysis, whih would otherwise be too expensive for most individual labs to acquire. Careers in core facilities, unless integrated into a tenure line, are distinct from traditional academic jobs. The critical transition point in a core facility career is from bench scientist to core facility director. The role of bench scientists is to maintain a high working level of technological proficiency in the techniques offered by the laboratory, while continuing to expand their skill set to incorporate the latest technological advances. The role of the director encompasses those of the bench scientist in addition to responsibilities for personnel and budget management, obtaining competitive grants, and developing and maintaining a satisfied customer base. In a workshop entitled “From Doctorate to Dean or Director: Sustaining Women Through Critical Transition Points in Science, Engineering, and Medicine” (held by the Committee on Women in Science, Engineering, and Medicine of the National Academies, Washington DC, September 18–19, 2008), the ABRF and sixteen other professional societies presented data relating to field-specific gender issues as well as recommendations to sustain women through transition points in their scientific careers.In an ABRF survey study published in Nature Biotechnology in 2000,¹ the percentage of male employees holding MDs or PhDs across all core facility sectors was significantly greater than the percentage of female employees (24% and 9%, respectively). The government core facilities showed the highest level of disparity: 39% of males with an MD or PhD vs. 7% of females with these degrees (N = 42 government employee respondents). Of all the male employees hired by government-run core facilities, 54.6% held MDs or PhDs; among female employees, 19.4% held MDs or PhDs. However, in contrast to national trends, there is no significant difference in salaries for men and women at the same degree level at core facilities¹ in all sectors. Since compensation for men and women holding PhDs in core facilities is equal, why do the numbers of men and women at the PhD level working in core facilities differ significantly? This discrepancy raises the important question as to whether women with PhDs are represented in the job applicant pool in the expected ratio, and whether women are selected for core facility director positions in numbers that reflect their overall numbers within the field. If women with PhDs are found not to be represented in the applicant pool in the expected ratio, then one potential reason for the disparity could be gender hiring biases. Alternatively, the number of years on the job could also have skewed the results if more female PhDs were newer hires (data not reported), as newer employees feel increased job stress and might be less likely to respond to such a survey. The critical question remaining is whether these skews translate into fewer female core facility scientists entering director positions, as most facility directors hold advanced degrees. Since this study is somewhat dated, it is important to readdress, perhaps with a new comprehensive survey, whether these disparities still exist in core facilities, especially now when women and men in the sciences are earning their PhDs at nearly equal rates.²This study was discussed at the workshop and overall there was great enthusiasm for a new survey to address the issues. At the workshop, the observation that the number of women scientists decreases with advancing professional rank was coined the “leaky pipeline.” The leaky pipeline itself may also be a mitigating factor for the skewed gender statistics in core facility laboratories, and the workshop panelists explored this phenomenon in great detail. Joan Girgus, Professor of Psychology and Special Assistant to the Dean of the Faculty for issues concerning faculty diversity at Princeton University, attributes the leaky pipeline in part to competing family commitments. To address this specifically, Princeton has a comprehensive family-benefits program that includes (1) travel awards to offset childcare expenses when scientific conferences are attended, and (2) a dependent-care backup program. Dr. Phoebe Leboy, President of the Association for Women in Science, attributes the leaky pipeline in part to family issues, self-confidence, and more entrenched obstacles of a “chilly climate” or “locker-room mentality” where women are demeaned and undervalued, and suggests that the culture of science is designed for men, in the sense that to succeed in the environment of a normal 12-hour-plus work day relies on there being a woman at home to take care of the family and family business. She offered thought-provoking ideas for culture change including basing hiring decisions on the quality of publications and grant scores, rather than the sheer numbers of publications and grants obtained. Pardis Sabeti, a young and enthusiastic new Assistant Professor of Systems Biology at Harvard University, attributes the leaky pipeline to self-confidence issues, claiming that women in general must feel “100% prepared to apply to a new position,” whereas men may be bolder and “apply if they feel only 60% qualified.” This type of discrepancy in gender psychology may well explain gender skews in job applicant pools.One other mitigating factor that was discussed is the length of time it takes to obtain a PhD degree. Michelle Cilia, a Postdoctoral Associate with the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service at Cornell University, pointed out an exemplary new PhD program that is aimed at shortening the length of time to get the degree by changing the culture of the PhD program without sacrificing the quality of education. This graduate school, The Watson School of Biological Sciences at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, combines innovative coursework, bi-yearly committee meetings organized by the graduate school administrators, and a two-tier mentoring system to assist students toward the goal of a 4-year PhD. Thus, while there are many “leaks in the pipeline,” both individuals and organizations are sealing these leaks to foster improvement in retaining women in their fields. What role can the ABRF play in helping to sustain women in their scientific professions?The ABRF as an organization could potentially provide the resources, such as a mentoring program, to help women scientists along the career track from bench scientist to core facility director in the absence of other institutional support such as tenure reviews and departmental support. Currently, no such programs are established. Female core facility scientists are not alone in feeling the adverse effects of the lack of resources such as mentoring programs, for the current cohort of women chemists in academia has reported mentoring gaps and gender biases at some point during their careers.³ It is not clear whether the lack of such programs indicates that there is limited interest in mentoring female scientists who wish to become core directors or if few female scientists are on such a track and seek assistance. With the growing need for proteomics, bioinformatics, and genome sequencing services, core facilities are in high demand and are now found at almost every major research university and medical center. This growth translates into more job opportunities for women scientists. Given the rapid growth of this relatively young career path, the absence of mentorship support, and the unequal numbers of male and female employees holding advanced degrees in core facilities, the ABRF and its members would benefit from learning about and implementing proven strategies to help female members rise from the ranks of scientist to core facility director. There are numerous things the ABRF as a professional society can do to directly address issues that disproportionately affect women:

1. Gather data through the ABRF Survey Committee to identify gaps between the genders in areas that might contribute to the leaky pipeline such as the job applicant pool, promotions, job satisfaction, number of years on the job, number of women in core director positions, and the availability of family-friendly benefits packages. The Survey Committee might consider enlisting the services of a survey research specialist in designing the survey.
2. Institute a mentoring program that encourages networking and additional training to tackle the added job responsibilities of a core facility director. This can be done at annual meetings in the form of professional development workshops. For example, the American Society for Cell Biology has two programs associated with their annual meeting: one geared toward new faculty, which helps new assistant professors tackle the demands of the pre-tenure phase, and “Reboot Camp” for older faculty who might be left behind advances in technology or policies.
3. Elevate the status of the profession. Core directors are critical to the advancement and achievement of research goals and technology in all sectors. However, many feel underappreciated and not fully recognized for their work, especially if their positions are not clearly defined by the university. Through the Survey Committee, the ABRF might gather data on how core facility directors feel they are perceived by their colleagues. Local meetings, such as the Northeast Regional Life Sciences Core Directors meeting, provide networking opportunities and a great platform for core facility directors to discuss specific issues pertaining to their position.
4. Encourage undergraduates, graduate students, and postdoctoral researchers to use core facilities for interdisciplinary aspects of their research. Doing so will expose young scientists to alternative career options and give them networking opportunities outside their field of study. The ABRF began this tradition at last year’s 2008 annual meeting when they presented two postdoctoral scientists with awards for collaborating with core facilities, and also gave them the opportunity to present their research at the annual meeting.

The ABRF presented these suggestions at the workshop so as to highlight a distinct, new career path for women scientists and some of the unique barriers they may have to overcome while pursuing the career as core director, and to highlight what the ABRF can do to help sustain women through their career transitions. During the transition from scientist to director, a woman faces the same professional challenges as faculty members and university administrators, while also having to deal with the personal challenges that confront all working female scientists.² Women would thus benefit greatly from the same training and mentoring programs available to these other professionals.To address the issues facing women in core facility careers, the ABRF has taken the important first step of organizing a workshop at the upcoming 2009 annual meeting. Much can be learned from the workshop reviewed here—“From Doctorate to Dean or Director: Sustaining Women Through Critical Transition Points in Science, Engineering, and Medicine”—and its lessons might be useful as discussion points for the ABRF 2009 workshop. The overall themes that guided the panelist’s discussions and the suggestions offered by other professional societies mirror the concerns of the ABRF. Gathering information and disseminating the results of studies on issues pertaining to women, in particular women of color, is critical to the success of any workshop examining the lives of women in the world of science. Professional societies must be engaged as a vehicle for bringing change about in the culture of science; however, administrators must also be brought on board for change to occur in any systematic way. Basic issues like self-confidence, learning how to prioritize at work, and how to manage the work–family juggle have a big impact on a woman’s decision to stay in science. Outreach and education are important so senior women scientists can serve as examples for the aspiring youth, in particular with regard to teaching young women how to advantageously use their professional network. Mentorship and family-friendly benefit programs can can have a profound effect on the effort to retain women in science. Even more than a mentor, women need champions who will go to bat for them for the big promotion at the critical transition. An example of such a champion is Dr. Eugene P. Orringer, Professor of Medicine at the University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill, and the school’s Executive Associate Dean for Faculty Affairs. As the principal investigator of a $2.5-million grant from the National Institutes of Health—“Building Interdisciplinary Research Careers in Women’s Health” (BIRCWH, pronounced “birch”)—he has directly helped, through instituting a mentorship program, 24 young faculty (22 of them women) obtain National Institutes of Health “K” or “R” grants at a rate of nearly 100%. Finally, leadership and inspiration are vital to success in every scientific endeavor and the ABRF is in a unique position, being an active professional society with a significant membership population of core facility directors, to provide such leadership and inspiration to their core facilities scientists who aspire to directorships or beyond.     

Leaf structural changes associated with iron deficiency chlorosis in field-grown pear and peach: physiological implications

Plants grown in calcareous, high pH soils develop Fe deficiency chlorosis. While the physiological parameters of Fe-deficient leaves have been often investigated, there is a lack of information regarding structural leaf changes associated with such abiotic stress. Iron-sufficient and Fe-deficient pear and peach leaves have been studied, and differences concerning leaf epidermal and internal structure were found. Iron deficiency caused differences in the aspect of the leaf surface, which appeared less smooth in Fe-deficient than in Fe-sufficient leaves. Iron deficiency reduced the amount of soluble cuticular lipids in peach leaves, whereas it reduced the weight of the abaxial cuticle in pear leaves. In both plant species, epidermal cells were enlarged as compared to healthy leaves, whereas the size of guard cells was reduced. In chlorotic leaves, bundle sheaths were enlarged and appeared disorganized, while the mesophyll was more compacted and less porous than in green leaves. In contrast to healthy leaves, chlorotic leaves of both species showed a significant transient opening of stomata after leaf abscission (Iwanoff effect), which can be ascribed to changes found in epidermal and guard cells. Results indicate that Fe-deficiency may alter the barrier properties of the leaf surface, which can significantly affect leaf water relations, solute permeability and pest and disease resistance.     

Metabolic responses in iron deficient tomato plants

The effects of Fe deficiency on different metabolic processes were characterized in roots, xylem sap and leaves of tomato. The total organic acid pool increased significantly with Fe deficiency in xylem sap and leaves of tomato plants, whereas it did not change in roots. However, the composition of the pool changed with Fe deficiency, with major increases in citrate concentrations in roots (20-fold), leaves (2-fold) and xylem sap (17-fold). The activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, an enzyme leading to anaplerotic C fixation, increased 10-fold in root tip extracts with Fe deficiency, whereas no change was observed in leaf extracts. The activities of the organic acid synthesis-related enzymes malate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, fumarase and aconitase, as well as those of the enzymes lactate dehydrogenase and pyruvate carboxylase, increased with Fe deficiency in root extracts, whereas only citrate synthase increased significantly with Fe deficiency in leaf extracts. These results suggest that the enhanced C fixation capacity in Fe-deficient tomato roots may result in producing citrate that could be used for Fe xylem transport. Total pyridine nucleotide pools did not change significantly with Fe deficiency in roots or leaves, although NAD(P)H/NAD(P) ratios were lower in Fe-deficient roots than in controls. Rates of O(2) consumption were similar in Fe-deficient and Fe-sufficient roots, but the capacity of the alternative oxidase pathway was decreased by Fe deficiency. Also, increases in Fe reductase activity with Fe deficiency were only 2-fold higher when measured in tomato root tips. These values are significantly lower than those found in other plant species, where Fe deficiency leads to larger increases in organic acid synthesis-related enzyme activities and flavin accumulation. These data support the hypothesis that the extent of activation of different metabolic pathways, including carbon fixation via PEPC, organic acid synthesis-related enzymes and oxygen consumption is different among species, and this could modulate the different levels of efficiency in Strategy I plants.     

Changes induced by two levels of cadmium toxicity in the 2-DE protein profile of tomato roots

Tomato is an important crop from nutritional and economical points of view, and it is grown in greenhouses, where special substrates and the use of recycled water imply an increased risk of Cd accumulation. We investigated tomato root responses to low (10 µM) and high (100 µM) Cd concentrations at the root proteome level. Root extract proteome maps were obtained by 2-DE, and an average of 121, 145 and 93 spots were detected in the 0, 10 and 100 µM Cd treatments, respectively. The low Cd treatment (10 µM) resulted in significant and higher than 2-fold changes in the relative amounts of 36 polypeptides, with 27 of them identified by mass spectrometry, whereas the 100 µM Cd treatment resulted in changes in the relative amounts of 41 polypeptides, with 33 of them being identified. The 2-DE based proteomic approach allowed assessing the main metabolic pathways affected by Cd toxicity. Our results suggests that the 10 µM Cd treatment elicits proteomic responses similar to those observed in Fe deficiency, including activation of the glycolytic pathway, TCA cycle and respiration, whereas the 100 µM Cd treatment responses are more likely due to true Cd toxicity, with a general shutdown of carbon metabolism and increases in stress related and detoxification proteins.     

Effects of drought and elevated temperature on biochemical composition of forage plants and their impact on carbon storage in grassland soil

Aims

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of future warming and drought on (1) the biochemical composition of above-ground biomass of forage plants (Festuca arundinacea and Dactylis glomerata), (2) the potential mineralization of this material in soil, and (3) its priming effect on native soil organic matter.

Methods

We sampled above-ground plant material from spring regrowth and summer regrowth of a climate change experiment. While in spring, the plants were well watered, the summer regrowth was exposed to drought and elevated temperature (+3 °C) by infrared heating of the canopy during 3 weeks. We assessed the elemental and isotopic composition, lignin and non-cellulosic carbohydrate content and composition of plant material grown under all three conditions. Its mineralization potential in soil and priming effects were evaluated during laboratory incubation.

Results

Warming had no significant effect on elemental and stable isotope composition of both plant materials. In contrast, it resulted in reduction of lignin content for both plant species and decrease of the lignin-to-N ratio for F. arundinacea and increased non-cellulosic carbohydrate content for D. glomerata. Summer regrowth was characterised by increase of δ¹³C values, which is consistent with variations in stomatal conductance due to water shortage. Moreover, summer drought induced an increase in N content leading to decrease of the C/N ratio and increase of lignin-to-N ratio of summer regrowth compared to spring regrowth. Differences in decomposition were small, while priming effects were more strongly altered by the different exposure to enviromental.

Conclusion

Our results provide direct experimental evidence that extreme climatic events (high temperature and precipitation deficit) have an influence on soil carbon storage particularly through their effect on priming of native soil organic matter induced by altered plant litter. These effects seem to be governed by alterations of stoichiometry and to a smaller extent by alterations of plant chemical composition.     

The Ma gene for complete-spectrum resistance to Meloidogyne species in Prunus is a TNL with a huge repeated C-terminal post-LRR region

Root-knot nematode (RKN) Meloidogyne species are major polyphagous pests of most crops worldwide, and cultivars with durable resistance are urgently needed because of nematicide bans. The Ma gene from the Myrobalan plum (Prunus cerasifera) confers complete-spectrum, heat-stable, and high-level resistance to RKN, which is remarkable in comparison with the Mi-1 gene from tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), the sole RKN resistance gene cloned. We report here the positional cloning and the functional validation of the Ma locus present at the heterozygous state in the P.2175 accession. High-resolution mapping totaling over 3,000 segregants reduced the Ma locus interval to a 32-kb cluster of three Toll/Interleukin1 Receptor-Nucleotide Binding Site-Leucine-Rich Repeat (LRR) genes (TNL1-TNL3), including a pseudogene (TNL2) and a truncated gene (TNL3). The sole complete gene in this interval (TNL1) was validated as Ma, as it conferred the same complete-spectrum and high-level resistance (as in P.2175) using its genomic sequence and native promoter region in Agrobacterium rhizogenes-transformed hairy roots and composite plants. The full-length cDNA (2,048 amino acids) of Ma is the longest of all Resistance genes cloned to date. Its TNL structure is completed by a huge post-LRR (PL) sequence (1,088 amino acids) comprising five repeated carboxyl-terminal PL exons with two conserved motifs. The amino-terminal region (213 amino acids) of the LRR exon is conserved between alleles and contrasts with the high interallelic polymorphisms of its distal region (111 amino acids) and of PL domains. The Ma gene highlights the importance of these uncharacterized PL domains, which may be involved in pathogen recognition through the decoy hypothesis or in nuclear signaling.     

Characterization of flavins in roots of Fe-deficient strategy I plants, with a focus on Medicago truncatula

The root accumulation and excretion of riboflavin (Rbfl) and Rbfl derivatives have been studied in the model legume species Medicago truncatula, grown in hydroponics in two different Fe deficiency conditions, with and without CaCO(3). Using high resolution mass spectrometry techniques coupled to liquid chromatography, three different flavin derivatives not previously reported in plants, putatively identified as 7-hydroxy-Rbfl, 7α-hydroxy-Rbfl and 7-carboxy-Rbfl, were found along with Rbfl in Fe-deficient M. truncatula roots. In the presence of CaCO(3) most of the flavins were accumulated in the roots, whereas in the absence of CaCO(3) there was partial export to the nutrient solution. The major flavins in roots and nutrient solution were Rbfl and 7-hydroxy-Rbfl, respectively. Flavins were located in the root cortex and epidermal cells, preferentially in a root region near the apex that also exhibited increased ferric chelate reductase (FCR) activity. Six out of 15 different species of horticultural interest showed root increases in both Rbfl (four of them also having Rbfl derivatives) and FCR. No significant correlation was found between Rbfl and either phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase or FCR activities, whereas the latter two showed a good correlation between them. The possible roles of Rbfl and Rbfl derivatives in roots and nutrient solutions are discussed. Medicago truncatula is proposed as a model system for flavin studies.     

Molecular fractionation and characterization of a Candida albicans fraction that increases tumor cell adhesion to hepatic endothelium

Systemic candidiasis remains a major complication among patients suffering from hematological malignancies and favors the development of hepatic metastasis. To contribute to the understanding of the underlying mechanisms, the aim of this study was to identify molecules that may increase tumor cell adhesion to hepatic endothelial cells. To this end, a well-established in vitro model was used to determine the enhancement of tumor cell adhesion induced by Candida albicans and its fractions. Different fractions were obtained according to their molecular weight (M _r) (five) or to their isoelectric point (pI) (four), using preparative electrophoresis and preparative isoelectric focusing, respectively, followed by affinity chromatography. The fraction that most enhanced melanoma cell adhesion to endothelium had an M _r range from 45 to 66 kDa. It was characterized using two-dimensional electrophoresis, and 14 proteins were identified by peptide mass fingerprinting: Dor14p, Fba1p, Pdi1p, Pgk1p, Idh2p, Mpg1p, Sfa1p, Ape3p, Ilv5p, Tuf1p, Act1p, Eno1p, Qcr2p, and Adh1p. Of these, several are related to the immunogenic response, and the latter seven belonged to the most reactive fraction according to their pI range, from 5 to 5.6. These findings could represent a step forward in the search for new targets, to suppress the pro-metastatic effect of C. albicans.     

Efectos del Modelo de Atención Centrado en la Persona en la calidad de vida de personas con deterioro cognitivo de centros gerontológicos

Introduction

The Model of Person Centered Care has attracted increasing interest for use in gerontology centers. Therefore, the contributions about its impact are scarce in our context. The objective of this paper is to establish the impact that the interventions associated with the Model of Person Centered Care in the «Etxean Ondo» Project have on the quality of life of residents with cognitive impairment.

Material and methods

One hundred and ninetten residents with cognitive impairment were selected: 59 in the control group and 60 in the experimental group. Subjects in each group were sorted by cognitive impairment: mild or severe. Changes were implemented in the physical and organizational environments for the promotion of autonomy and wellbeing. Quality of life was assessed before and 6 months after intervention using the Fumat Scales (mild cognitive impairment) and Qualid (severe cognitive impairment). The t-Student test was used for comparison of means.

Results

In intergroup comparisons, significant differences in the Fumat Scale for the control group with mild cognitive impairment were initially identified. These differences were not recorded in the post assessment. The experimental group with severe cognitive impairment was significantly improved in the Qualid Scale post assessment. In intragroup comparisons, significant improvements were evident in the quality of life of experimental subjects, both with severe cognitive impairment (Qualid) and mild (Fumat).

Conclusions

The findings support the effectiveness of the interventions and identify methodological and conceptual issues that have been considered to analyze the Model of Person Centered Care efects.