Insufficient glucose supply is linked to hypothermia upon cold exposure in high-fat diet-fed mice lacking PEMT

Mice that lack phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (Pemt^−/− mice) are protected from high-fat (HF) diet-induced obesity. HF-fed Pemt^−/− mice show higher oxygen consumption and heat production, indicating that more energy might be utilized for thermogenesis and might account for the resistance to diet-induced weight gain. To test this hypothesis, HF-fed Pemt^−/− and Pemt^+/+ mice were challenged with acute cold exposure at 4°C. Unexpectedly, HF-fed Pemt^−/− mice developed hypothermia within 3 h of cold exposure. In contrast, chow-fed Pemt^−/− mice, possessing similar body mass, maintained body temperature. Lack of PEMT did not impair the capacity for thermogenesis in skeletal muscle or brown adipose tissue. Plasma catecholamines were not altered by Pemt genotype, and stimulation of lipolysis was intact in brown and white adipose tissue of Pemt^−/− mice. HF-fed Pemt^−/− mice also developed higher systolic blood pressure, accompanied by reduced cardiac output. Choline supplementation reversed the cold-induced hypothermia in HF-fed Pemt^−/− mice with no effect on blood pressure. Plasma glucose levels were ∼50% lower in HF-fed Pemt^−/− mice compared with Pemt^+/+ mice. Choline supplementation normalized plasma hypoglycemia and the expression of proteins involved in gluconeogenesis. We propose that cold-induced hypothermia in HF-fed Pemt^−/− mice is linked to plasma hypoglycemia due to compromised hepatic glucose production.     

Distinct Cellular Assembly Stoichiometry of Polycomb Complexes on Chromatin Revealed by Single-molecule Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Imaging

Epigenetic complexes play an essential role in regulating chromatin structure, but information about their assembly stoichiometry on chromatin within cells is poorly understood. The cellular assembly stoichiometry is critical for appreciating the initiation, propagation, and maintenance of epigenetic inheritance during normal development and in cancer. By combining genetic engineering, chromatin biochemistry, and single-molecule fluorescence imaging, we developed a novel and sensitive approach termed single-molecule chromatin immunoprecipitation imaging (Sm-ChIPi) to enable investigation of the cellular assembly stoichiometry of epigenetic complexes on chromatin. Sm-ChIPi was validated by using chromatin complexes with known stoichiometry. The stoichiometry of subunits within a polycomb complex and the assembly stoichiometry of polycomb complexes on chromatin have been extensively studied but reached divergent views. Moreover, the cellular assembly stoichiometry of polycomb complexes on chromatin remains unexplored. Using Sm-ChIPi, we demonstrated that within mouse embryonic stem cells, one polycomb repressive complex (PRC) 1 associates with multiple nucleosomes, whereas two PRC2s can bind to a single nucleosome. Furthermore, we obtained direct physical evidence that the nucleoplasmic PRC1 is monomeric, whereas PRC2 can dimerize in the nucleoplasm. We showed that ES cell differentiation induces selective alteration of the assembly stoichiometry of Cbx2 on chromatin but not other PRC1 components. We additionally showed that the PRC2-mediated trimethylation of H3K27 is not required for the assembly stoichiometry of PRC1 on chromatin. Thus, these findings uncover that PRC1 and PRC2 employ distinct mechanisms to assemble on chromatin, and the novel Sm-ChIPi technique could provide single-molecule insight into other epigenetic complexes.     

Ablation of the Ferroptosis Inhibitor Glutathione Peroxidase 4 in Neurons Results in Rapid Motor Neuron Degeneration and Paralysis

Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), an antioxidant defense enzyme active in repairing oxidative damage to lipids, is a key inhibitor of ferroptosis, a non-apoptotic form of cell death involving lipid reactive oxygen species. Here we show that GPX4 is essential for motor neuron health and survival in vivo. Conditional ablation of Gpx4 in neurons of adult mice resulted in rapid onset and progression of paralysis and death. Pathological inspection revealed that the paralyzed mice had a dramatic degeneration of motor neurons in the spinal cord but had no overt neuron degeneration in the cerebral cortex. Consistent with the role of GPX4 as a ferroptosis inhibitor, spinal motor neuron degeneration induced by Gpx4 ablation exhibited features of ferroptosis, including no caspase-3 activation, no TUNEL staining, activation of ERKs, and elevated spinal inflammation. Supplementation with vitamin E, another inhibitor of ferroptosis, delayed the onset of paralysis and death induced by Gpx4 ablation. Also, lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial dysfunction appeared to be involved in ferroptosis of motor neurons induced by Gpx4 ablation. Taken together, the dramatic motor neuron degeneration and paralysis induced by Gpx4 ablation suggest that ferroptosis inhibition by GPX4 is essential for motor neuron health and survival in vivo.     

Arabidopsis Cell Division Cycle 20.1 Is Required for Normal Meiotic Spindle Assembly and Chromosome Segregation

Cell division requires proper spindle assembly; a surveillance pathway, the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), monitors whether the spindle is normal and correctly attached to kinetochores. The SAC proteins regulate mitotic chromosome segregation by affecting CDC20 (Cell Division Cycle 20) function. However, it is unclear whether CDC20 regulates meiotic spindle assembly and proper homolog segregation. Here, we show that the Arabidopsis thaliana CDC20.1 gene is indispensable for meiosis and male fertility. We demonstrate that cdc20.1 meiotic chromosomes align asynchronously and segregate unequally and the metaphase I spindle has aberrant morphology. Comparison of the distribution of meiotic stages at different time points between the wild type and cdc20.1 reveals a delay of meiotic progression from diakinesis to anaphase I. Furthermore, cdc20.1 meiocytes exhibit an abnormal distribution of a histone H3 phosphorylation mark mediated by the Aurora kinase, providing evidence that CDC20.1 regulates Aurora localization for meiotic chromosome segregation. Further evidence that CDC20.1 and Aurora are functionally related was provided by meiosis-specific knockdown of At-Aurora1 expression, resulting in meiotic chromosome segregation defects similar to those of cdc20.1. Taken together, these results suggest a critical role for CDC20.1 in SAC-dependent meiotic chromosome segregation.     

Src and cortactin promote lamellipodia protrusion and filopodia formation and stability in growth cones

Src tyrosine kinases have been implicated in axonal growth and guidance; however, the underlying cellular mechanisms are not well understood. Specifically, it is unclear which aspects of actin organization and dynamics are regulated by Src in neuronal growth cones. Here, we investigated the function of Src2 and one of its substrates, cortactin, in lamellipodia and filopodia of Aplysia growth cones. We found that up-regulation of Src2 activation state or cortactin increased lamellipodial length, protrusion time, and actin network density, whereas down-regulation had opposite effects. Furthermore, Src2 or cortactin up-regulation increased filopodial density, length, and protrusion time, whereas down-regulation promoted lateral movements of filopodia. Fluorescent speckle microscopy revealed that rates of actin assembly and retrograde flow were not affected in either case. In summary, our results support a model in which Src and cortactin regulate growth cone motility by increasing actin network density and protrusion persistence of lamellipodia by controlling the state of actin-driven protrusion versus retraction. In addition, both proteins promote the formation and stability of actin bundles in filopodia.     

The detection and role of heat shock protein 70 in various nondisease conditions and disease conditions: a literature review

As an intracellular polypeptide, heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) can be exposed on the plasma membrane and/or released into the circulation. However, the role of HSP70 in various nondisease and disease conditions remains unknown. Quantitative methods for the detection of HSP70 have been used in clinical studies, revealing that an increase in circulating HSP70 is associated with various types of exercise, elderly patients presenting with inflammation, mobile phones, inflammation, sepsis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, carotid intima-media thickness, glutamine-treated ill patients, mortality, diabetes mellitus, active chronic glomerulonephritis, and cancers. Circulating HSP70 decreases with age in humans and in obstructive sleep apnea, arteriosclerosis, atrial fibrillation (AF) following coronary artery bypass surgery, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, moderate-to-severe alcoholic fatty liver disease, hepatic steatosis, and Helicobacter pylori infection. In conclusion, quantitative methods can be used to detect HSP70, particularly in determining circulating HSP70 levels, using more convenient and rapid screening methods. Studies have shown that changes in HSP70 are associated with various nondisease and disease conditions; thus, HSP70 might be a novel potential biomarker reflecting various nondisease conditions and also the severity of disease conditions. However, the reliability and accuracy, as well as the underlying mechanism, of this relationship remain poorly understood, and large-sample clinical research must be performed to verify the role.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12192-015-0618-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.