Balancing Detection and Eradication for Control of Epidemics: Sudden Oak Death in Mixed-Species Stands

Culling of infected individuals is a widely used measure for the control of several plant and animal pathogens but culling first requires detection of often cryptically-infected hosts. In this paper, we address the problem of how to allocate resources between detection and culling when the budget for disease management is limited. The results are generic but we motivate the problem for the control of a botanical epidemic in a natural ecosystem: sudden oak death in mixed evergreen forests in coastal California, in which species composition is generally dominated by a spreader species (bay laurel) and a second host species (coast live oak) that is an epidemiological dead-end in that it does not transmit infection but which is frequently a target for preservation. Using a combination of an epidemiological model for two host species with a common pathogen together with optimal control theory we address the problem of how to balance the allocation of resources for detection and epidemic control in order to preserve both host species in the ecosystem. Contrary to simple expectations our results show that an intermediate level of detection is optimal. Low levels of detection, characteristic of low effort expended on searching and detection of diseased trees, and high detection levels, exemplified by the deployment of large amounts of resources to identify diseased trees, fail to bring the epidemic under control. Importantly, we show that a slight change in the balance between the resources allocated to detection and those allocated to control may lead to drastic inefficiencies in control strategies. The results hold when quarantine is introduced to reduce the ingress of infected material into the region of interest.     

Postcolonial Identities in Africa

Postcolonial Identities in Africa. Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger. eds. London: Zed Books, 1996. 292 pp.     

Effects of urbanization on streams of the Melbourne region, Victoria, Australia. I. Benthic macroinvertebrate communities

1. Macroinvertebrate community composition was assessed in small streams of the Melbourne region to test the effects of (a) urban density (catchment imperviousness 0–51%) and (b) stormwater drainage intensity (comparing the intensively drained metropolitan area with urban areas of the hinterland, which had open drains and some localized stormwater drainage).
2. Hinterland communities separated into two groups of sites correlating strongly with patterns of electrical conductivity (EC), basalt geology and annual rainfall. Community composition varied little in the high-EC, western group (imperviousness 0.2–1.2%), but in the eastern group it was strongly correlated with catchment imperviousness (0–12%), with lower taxon richness in more impervious catchments.
3. Metropolitan communities (imperviousness 1–51%) were all severely degraded, with high abundances of a few tolerant taxa. Community composition was poorly correlated with patterns of geology, rainfall or imperviousness. Differences between metropolitan and hinterland communities were well explained by patterns of biochemical oxygen demand and electrical conductivity, which were postulated to indicate the more efficient transport of pollutants to receiving streams by the metropolitan stormwater drainage system.
4. Degradation of macroinvertebrate community composition was well explained by urban density but intensive urban drainage increased degradation severely at even low urban densities. Quantification of relationships between imperviousness, drainage intensity and stream degradation can better inform the assessment, conservation and restoration of urban streams.     

The natural history, thermal physiology, and ecological impacts of intertidal mesopredators, Oedoparena spp. (Diptera: Dryomyzidae)

Abstract. The ecological roles of small (1–1000 mg) predators in benthic marine systems are poorly understood. We investigated the natural history and predatory impact of one group of such mesopredators—larvae of dipteran flies in the genus Oedoparena —which prey on intertidal barnacles. We 1) quantified patterns of larval Oedoparena distribution and abundance in the Northwest Straits of Washington State, USA, 2) determined larval physiological tolerance limits in the laboratory, and 3) conducted a manipulative field experiment to assess the role of microhabitat temperature on predation rates in Oedoparena . Members of Oedoparena in Washington are univoltine, with peak larval abundance in late spring and early summer. Infestation frequencies in the barnacles Balanus glandula and Chthamalus dalli were as high as 22% and 35%, respectively. In laboratory studies, larvae of O . glauca were able to tolerate temperatures up to 37°C; however, this temperature is often exceeded in high intertidal habitats. In a field manipulation using experimental shades, we demonstrate that the alleviation of physiological stress greatly increased the abundance of larvae of Oedoparena spp. As a result of increased larval densities under shades, adult B. glandula mortality increased from 5% to nearly 30%, and C. dalli mortality increased from less than 20% to over 60%. Because high intertidal barnacles serve as food and habitat for a diverse array of species, Oedoparena spp. have the potential to play a major role in structuring high intertidal communities, particularly in cooler microhabitats.     

Long‐term population dynamics of a coral reef gastropod and responses to disturbance

The age‐specific density of the red‐lipped stromb Strombus luhuanus (Mollusca: Gastropoda) was monitored over 13 years (1981–1993) at four locations on the intertidal reef flat at Heron Island, Great Barrier Reef. Densities were highly variable, but there were persistent, location‐specific differences in population density, age structure and adult body size, the latter indicating that the populations were not extensively linked by adult movement. There was relatively high recruitment at most locations in 1984, 1989 and 1993, each occurring approximately 2 years after El Niño/Southern Oscillation events, although recruit density during these years varied in both space and time. The studied strombs experienced three disturbance events: (i) experimental harvesting at two locations (1984–1985); (ii) siltation from a harbour dredging operation (1987–1988); and (iii) a severe cyclone (1992). Resilience to harvesting at a local scale (0.5–2 ha) was high: density had recovered within a year, due to immigration of adults and older juveniles. Strombus luhuanus responded much more strongly to broad‐scale changes to its environment than to localized harvesting. After dredging, there was a progressive density decline coupled with low recruitment at two locations, and a later decline at a third location, followed by a recruitment‐driven rebound after the cyclone. Generalized environmental effects of siltation and the cyclone were also reflected in substantial changes in algal cover. Long‐term variations in environmental conditions probably cause high temporal variation over large spatial scales through effects on the survival of larvae or recruits. Localized short‐term field monitoring of such species would give a misleading picture of key factors affecting population dynamics.     

The economics of monocropping and intercropping by smallholders: The case of coconuts in Indonesia

This article contains a comparison of the profits of cultivating modern and traditional varieties of coconuts as a monocrop and as an intercrop, in ideal and in average growing conditions, with good and with average management. We carry out the analysis from a private (financial) and from a national (economic) perspective. The results show that intercropping generates more income than monocropping. In the conclusion we discuss why development organizations and Third World countries encourage monocropping.     

Assessing the promise of user involvement in health service development: ethnographic study

Objectives To understand how the policy of user involvement is interpreted in health service organisations and to identify factors that influence how user involvement is put into practice.Design Ethnographic study using participant observation, interviews, and collection of documentary evidence.Setting A multiagency modernisation programme to improve stroke services in two London boroughs.Participants Service users, National Health Service managers, and clinicians.Results User involvement in the programme was initiated and led by professionals. Professionals determined the areas of service improvement service users could participate in. A wide range of activities were considered “user involvement,” from patient satisfaction surveys to service users delivering peer support. Involvement tended to be most active in the least technical areas and areas with least input from clinicians. Factors that might explain this included organisational structure, the vagueness of the concept of user involvement, the value attributed to service users’ experiential knowledge, and variations in professional and service user understandings of and commitment to involvement. The gains of involvement were harder to identify in terms of impact on services. More evident were the personal gains for those involved: satisfaction of feeling listened to by professionals, social opportunities of meeting others in a similar situation, and increased knowledge about stroke and services available.Conclusions User involvement may not automatically lead to improved service quality. Healthcare professionals and service users understand and practise user involvement in different ways according to individual ideologies, circumstances, and needs. Given the resource implications of undertaking user involvement in service development there is a need for critical debate on the purpose of such involvement as well as better evidence of the benefits claimed for it.     

The RAD6 DNA repair pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: What does it do,and how does it do it?

The RAD6 pathway of budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is responsible for a substantial fraction of this organism's resistance to DNA damage, and also for induced mutagenesis. The pathway appears to incorporate two different recovery processes, both regulated by RAD6. The error-prone recovery prcess accounts for only a small amount of RAD6-dependent resistance, but probably all induced mutagenesis. The underlying mechanism, for error-prone recovery is very likely to be translesion synthesis. The error-free recovery process accounts for most of RAD6-dependent resistace, but its mechanism is less clear; it may entail error-free bypass by template switching and/or DNA gap filling by recombination. RAD6 regulates these activities by ubiquitinateins, and the roles they play in error-free and error-prone recovery, have not yet been established.