Fatigue in Multiple Sclerosis: Assessing Pontine Involvement Using Proton MR Spectroscopic Imaging

Background/Objective

The underlying mechanism of fatigue in multiple sclerosis (MS) remains poorly understood. Our study investigates the involvement of the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), originating in the pontine brainstem, in MS patients with symptoms of fatigue.

Methods

Female relapsing-remitting MS patients (n = 17) and controls (n = 15) underwent a magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging protocol at 1.5T. Fatigue was assessed in every subject using the Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS). Using an FSS cut-off of 36, patients were categorized into a low (n = 9, 22 ± 10) or high (n = 10, 52 ± 6) fatigue group. The brain metabolites N-acetylaspartate (NAA) and total creatine (tCr) were measured from sixteen 5x5x10 mm³ spectroscopic imaging voxels in the rostral pons.

Results

MS patients with high fatigue had lower NAA/tCr concentration in the tegmental pons compared to control subjects. By using NAA and Cr values in the cerebellum for comparison, these NAA/tCr changes in the pons were driven by higher tCr concentration, and that these changes were focused in the WM regions.

Discussion/Conclusion

Since there were no changes in NAA concentration, the increase in tCr may be suggestive of gliosis, or an imbalanced equilibrium of the creatine and phosphocreatine ratio in the pons of relapsing-remitting MS patients with fatigue.     

Vertical Migration and Mortality of Marine Benthos in Dredged Material: A Synthesis

This account describes the comparative response of four species of benthic invertebrates to burial in terms of vertical migration and mortality, and provides a synthesis of studies and recommendations upon which to assess future impacts. The species featured were the bivalve Mercenaries mercenaria, the amphipod crustacean Parahaustorius longimerus, and the polychaetes Scoloplos fragilis and Nereis succinea. There was evidence of synergistic effects on burrowing activity and mortality with changes in time of burial, sediment depth, sediment type and temperature. In sediment with silt-clay, N. succinea was the most resistant species followed by M. mercenaria, S. fragilis and P. longimerus. In sediment without silt-clay the order of percent mortality was reversed. Studies of surface water chemistry and sediment geochemistry showed that dissolved oxygen decreased significantly and ammonia and sulfide increased significantly between the surface and below 2.0 cm within a 15-day period. Based on these results and physiological tolerances from the literature it was concluded that M. mercenaria and N. succinea would be relatively resistant to chemical effects of spoil disposal, whereas S. fragilis and P. longimerus would be less resistant to such effects. Vertical migration of benthic invertebrates through dredge disposal can be a viable mechanism of recolonization under certain conditions. Some effects of burial of benthos can be predicted based on morphology, behavior and physiology. These biological features were discussed with examples dealing with molluscs, crustaceans, and polychaetes. Finally, recommendations were made concerning the type of studies to provide additional data to aid management agencies in decision making about future dredging and disposal practices.     

Symbiosis-promoting and deleterious effects of NopT, a novel type 3 effector of Rhizobium sp. strain NGR234

Establishment of symbiosis between certain host plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria ("rhizobia") depends on type 3 effector proteins secreted via the bacterial type 3 secretion system (T3SS). Here, we report that the open reading frame y4zC of strain NGR234 encodes a novel rhizobial type 3 effector, termed NopT (for nodulation outer protein T). Analysis of secreted proteins from NGR234 and T3SS mutants revealed that NopT is secreted via the T3SS. NopT possessed autoproteolytic activity when expressed in Escherichia coli or human HEK 293T cells. The processed NopT exposed a glycine (G50) to the N terminus, which is predicted to be myristoylated in eukaryotic cells. NopT with a point mutation at position C93, H205, or D220 (catalytic triad) showed strongly reduced autoproteolytic activity, indicating that NopT is a functional protease of the YopT-AvrPphB effector family. When transiently expressed in tobacco plants, proteolytically active NopT elicited a rapid hypersensitive reaction. Arabidopsis plants transformed with nopT showed chlorotic and necrotic symptoms, indicating a cytotoxic effect. Inoculation experiments with mutant derivatives of NGR234 indicated that NopT affected nodulation either positively (Phaseolus vulgaris cv. Yudou No. 1; Tephrosia vogelii) or negatively (Crotalaria juncea). We suggest that NopT-related polymorphism may be involved in evolutionary adaptation of NGR234 to particular host legumes.     

Functional beta-cell maturation is marked by an increased glucose threshold and by expression of urocortin 3

Insulin-expressing cells that have been differentiated from human pluripotent stem cells in vitro lack the glucose responsiveness characteristic of mature beta cells. Beta-cell maturation in mice was studied to find genetic markers that enable screens for factors that induce bona fide beta cells in vitro. We find that functional beta-cell maturation is marked by an increase in the glucose threshold for insulin secretion and by expression of the gene urocortin 3.     

Active specific immunotherapy with Newcastle-diseasevirus-modified autologous tumor cells following resection of liver metastases in colorectal cancer

Summary A group of 23 colorectal cancer patients were treated by a new type of active specific immunotherapy (ASI) following complete surgical resection of liver metastases (R0 resection). For ASI treatment we used a vaccine consisting of 1 × 10⁷ autologous, irradiated (200 Gy) metastases-derived tumor cells incubated with 32 hemagglutination units (HU) of Newcastle disease virus (NDV). The adjuvant vaccine therapy was started 2 weeks after surgery and was repeated five times at 14-days intervals followed by one boost 3 months later. The delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) skin reactions to the vaccine were measured as well as the DTH reactions to a challenge test of 1 × 10⁷ non-virus-modified autologous tumor cells from liver metastases or 1 × 10⁷ autologous normal liver cells. In addition 32 HU NDV alone and a standard antigen test (Merieux test) were applied pre- and post-vaccination. The vaccination was well tolerated. In 13 of 23 patients an increasing reactivity against the vaccine was observed during the vaccination procedure. Nine patients (40%) experienced an increased DTH reactivity against autologous tumor cells following vaccination, while 17% or fewer showed an increased reactivity to Merieux test antigens, NDV, or normal liver cells. The increased antitumor response was not correlated to responsiveness to NDV alone, autologous liver cells, enzymes and culture medium used for vaccine preparation or standard antigens (Merieux test). After a follow-up of at least 18 months 61% of the vaccinated patients developed tumor recurrence in comparison to 87% of a matched control groups from the same institution that had been only surgically treated. The results of this phase II trial are encouraging and should stimulate further prospective randomized studies.     

The Evolution of RecD Outside of the RecBCD Complex

The common understanding of the function of RecD, as derived predominantly from studies in Escherichia coli, is that RecD is one of three enzymes in the RecBCD double-stranded break repair DNA recombination complex. However, comparative genomics has revealed that many organisms possess a recD gene even though the other members of the complex, recB and recC, are not present. Further, bioinformatic analyses have shown that there is substantial sequence dissimilarity between recD genes associated with recB and recC (recD1), and those that are not associated with recBC (recD2). Deinococcus radiodurans, known for its extraordinary DNA repair capability, is one such organism that does not possess either recB or recC, and yet does possess a recD gene. The recD of D. radiodurans was deleted and this mutant was shown to have a capacity to repair double-stranded DNA breaks equivalent to wild-type. The phylogenetic history of recD was studied using a dataset of 120 recD genes from 91 fully sequenced species. The analysis focused upon the role of gene duplication and functional genomic context in the evolution of recD2, which appears to have undergone numerous independent events resulting in duplicate recD2 genes. The role of RecD as part of the RecBCD complex appears to have a divergence from an earlier ancestral RecD function still preserved in many species including D. radiodurans.     

A synthetic amino acid substitution of Tyr10 in Aβ peptide sequence yields a dominant negative variant in amyloidogenesis

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in elderly people, and age is the major nongenetic risk factor for sporadic AD. A hallmark of AD is the accumulation of amyloid in the brain, which is composed mainly of the amyloid beta-peptide (Aβ) in the form of oligomers and fibrils. However, how aging induces Aβ aggregation is not yet fully determined. Some residues in the Aβ sequence seem to promote Aβ-induced toxicity in association with age-dependent risk factors for AD, such as (i) increased GM1 brain membrane content, (ii) altered lipid domain in brain membrane, (iii) oxidative stress. However, the role of Aβ sequence in promoting aggregation following interaction with the plasma membrane is not yet demonstrated. As Tyr10 is implicated in the induction of oxidative stress and stabilization of Aβ aggregation, we substituted Tyr 10 with a synthetic amino acid that abolishes Aβ-induced oxidative stress and shows an accelerated interaction with GM1. This variant peptide shows impaired aggregation properties and increased affinity for GM1. It has a dominant negative effect on amyloidogenesis in vitro, in cellulo, and in isolated synaptosomes. The present study shed new light in the understanding of Aβ-membrane interactions in Aβ-induced neurotoxicity. It demonstrates the relevance of Aβ sequence in (i) Aβ-membrane interaction, underlining the role of age-dependent enhanced GM1 content in promoting Aβ aggregation, (ii) Aβ aggregation, and (iii) Aβ-induced oxidative stress. Our results open the way for the design of peptides aimed to inhibit Aβ aggregation and neurotoxicity.     

Patterns of livestock depredation and cost‐effectiveness of fortified livestock enclosures in northern Tanzania

Human–carnivore conflicts and retaliatory killings contribute to carnivore populations' declines around the world. Strategies to mitigate conflicts have been developed, but their efficacy is rarely assessed in a randomized case–control design. Further, the economic costs prevent the adoption and wide use of conflict mitigation strategies by pastoralists in rural Africa. We examined carnivore (African lion [Panthera leo], leopard [Panthera pardus], spotted hyena [Crocuta crocuta], jackal [Canis mesomelas], and cheetah [Acinonyx jubatus]) raids on fortified (n = 45, total 631 monthly visits) and unfortified (traditional, n = 45, total 521 monthly visits) livestock enclosures (“bomas”) in northern Tanzania. The study aimed to (a) assess the extent of retaliatory killings of major carnivore species due to livestock depredation, (b) describe the spatiotemporal characteristics of carnivore raids on livestock enclosures, (c) analyze whether spatial covariates influenced livestock depredation risk in livestock enclosures, and (d) examine the cost‐effectiveness of livestock enclosure fortification. Results suggest that (a) majority of boma raids by carnivores were caused by spotted hyenas (nearly 90% of all raids), but retaliatory killings mainly targeted lions, (b) carnivore raid attempts were rare at individual households (0.081 raid attempts/month in fortified enclosures and 0.102 raid attempts/month in unfortified enclosures), and (c) spotted hyena raid attempts increased in the wet season compared with the dry season, and owners of fortified bomas reported less hyena raid attempts than owners of unfortified bomas. Landscape and habitat variables tested, did not strongly drive the spatial patterns of spotted hyena raids in livestock bomas. Carnivore raids varied randomly both spatially (village to village) and temporally (year to year). The cost‐benefit analysis suggest that investing in boma fortification yielded positive net present values after two to three years. Thus, enclosure fortification is a cost‐effective strategy to promote coexistence of carnivores and humans.     

Accurate Blood Flow Measurements: Are Artificial Tracers Necessary?

Imaging-based blood flow measurement techniques, such as particle image velocimetry, have become an important tool in cardiovascular research. They provide quantitative information about blood flow, which benefits applications ranging from developmental biology to tumor perfusion studies. Studies using these methods can be classified based on whether they use artificial tracers or red blood cells to visualize the fluid motion. We here present the first direct comparison in vivo of both methods. For high magnification cases, the experiments using red blood cells strongly underestimate the flow (up to 50% in the present case), as compared to the tracer results. For medium magnification cases, the results from both methods are indistinguishable as they give the same underestimation of the real velocities (approximately 33%, based on in vitro reference measurements). These results suggest that flow characteristics reported in literature cannot be compared without a careful evaluation of the imaging characteristics. A method to predict the expected flow averaging behavior for a particular facility is presented.