Dynamic force microscopy for imaging of viruses under physiological conditions

Dynamic force microscopy (DFM) allows imaging of the structure and the assessment of the function of biological specimens in their physiological environment. In DFM, the cantilever is oscillated at a given frequency and touches the sample only at the end of its downward movement. Accordingly, the problem of lateral forces displacing or even destroying bio-molecules is virtually inexistent as the contact time and friction forces are reduced. Here, we describe the use of DFM in studies of human rhinovirus serotype 2 (HRV2) weakly adhering to mica surfaces. The capsid of HRV2 was reproducibly imaged without any displacement of the virus. Release of the genomic RNA from the virions was initiated by exposure to low pH buffer and snapshots of the extrusion process were obtained. In the following, the technical details of previous DFM investigations of HRV2 are summarized. Published: June 29, 2004.     

Structural study of poly(L-lactic acid) spherulites

Spherulites of poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) and of its blends with atactic poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (a-PHB, from 10 to 75 wt %) were investigated by microfocus X-ray diffraction using synchrotron radiation. Radial scans in 5 microm steps with 3 microm beam diameter were performed. In PLLA, tens of identical diffraction images were collected. The unit cell a-axis was radially oriented, and the other axes lacked any specific orientation. In contrast, all PLLA/a-PHB blends showed a periodic change of diffraction pattern with increasing distance from the spherulite center. In all cases, the a-axis lay along the radius, while the b- and c-axes rotated about a with a defined periodicity. The unit cell twisting frequency increased with a-PHB content and closely matched the band spacing observed by polarized optical microscopy, which changed from 250 to 60 microm when the amount of a-PHB increased from 10 to 75 wt %. Concomitantly, a gradual broadening of all X-ray reflections was observed.     

Versatile and efficient formation of colloids of biopolymer-based polyelectrolyte complexes

The formation of colloids based on polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) of biopolymers was investigated through the complexation between two charged polysaccharides, chitosan as polycation, and dextran sulfate as polyanion. The slow dropwise addition of components, generally used for the formation of PECs, allowed to elaborate both cationic or anionic particles with an excess of chitosan or dextran sulfate, respectively. The PEC particles featured a core/shell structure, the hydrophobic core resulting from the segregation of complexed segments whereas excess component in the outer shell ensured the colloidal stabilization against further coagulation. Considering the host/guest concept for the formation of PECs, the influence of the molecular weight of components on particles sizes could be well explained by the chain length ratios of the two polymers. As an irreversible flocculation occurred with a dropwise approach for both cationic and anionic PEC particles when the mixing ratio was close to unity, a more versatile, and simpler to setup, method was designed: the one-shot addition of one solution to the other. Because process of addition is faster than the flocculation, cationic or anionic particles could be elaborated irrespective of the order of addition of the reactant. Characterization of these particles by quasielastic light scattering, electrophoresis, and scanning electron microscopy revealed very similar properties to those obtained by a slow dropwise approach. Critical coagulation concentrations of 0.12 and 0.09 M (with sodium chloride) for cationic and anionic particles evidenced a mostly electrostatic stabilization.     

Hydrogen/deuterium exchange studies of native rabbit MM-CK dynamics

Creatine kinase (CK) isoenzymes catalyse the reversible transfer of a phosphoryl group from ATP onto creatine. This reaction plays a very important role in the regulation of intracellular ATP concentrations in excitable tissues. CK isoenzymes are highly resistant to proteases in native conditions. To appreciate localized backbone dynamics, kinetics of amide hydrogen exchange with deuterium was measured by pulse-labeling the dimeric cytosolic muscle CK isoenzyme. Upon exchange, the protein was digested with pepsin, and the deuterium content of the resulting peptides was determined by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (MS). The deuteration kinetics of 47 peptides identified by MS/MS and covering 96% of the CK backbone were analyzed. Four deuteration patterns have been recognized: The less deuterated peptides are located in the saddle-shaped core of CK, whereas most of the highly deuterated peptides are close to the surface and located around the entrance to the active site. Their exchange kinetics are discussed by comparison with the known secondary and tertiary structures of CK with the goal to reveal the conformational dynamics of the protein. Some of the observed dynamic motions may be linked to the conformational changes associated with substrate binding and catalytic mechanism.     

The mitotic arrest in response to hypoxia and of polar bodies during early embryogenesis requires Drosophila Mps1

Mps1 kinase plays an evolutionary conserved role in the mitotic spindle checkpoint. This system precludes anaphase onset until all chromosomes have successfully attached to spindle microtubules via their kinetochores. Mps1 overexpression in budding yeast is sufficient to trigger a mitotic arrest, which is dependent on the other mitotic checkpoint components, Bub1, Bub3, Mad1, Mad2, and Mad3. Therefore, Mps1 might act at the top of the mitotic checkpoint cascade. Moreover, in contrast to the other mitotic checkpoint components, Mps1 is essential for spindle pole body duplication in budding yeast. Centrosome duplication in mammalian cells might also be controlled by Mps1 , but the fission yeast homolog is not required for spindle pole body duplication. Our phenotypic characterizations of Mps1 mutant embryos in Drosophila do not reveal an involvement in centrosome duplication, while the mitotic spindle checkpoint is defective in these mutants. In addition, our analyses reveal novel functions. We demonstrate that Mps1 is also required for the arrest of cell cycle progression in response to hypoxia. Finally, we show that Mps1 and the mitotic spindle checkpoint are responsible for the developmental cell cycle arrest of the three haploid products of female meiosis that are not used as the female pronucleus.     

Behavioural structuring of relatedness in the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) suggests direct fitness benefits of clan-level cooperation

Spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are gregarious carnivores that live in multigenerational social groups, called clans, containing one to several matrilines. Members of multiple matrilines within a clan cooperate during dangerous interactions with inter- and intraspecific competitors. The evolution of cooperation may be influenced by relatedness between individuals, which in turn is influenced by reproductive skew and mate choice, dispersal and territorial behaviours. Behavioural data exist for spotted hyenas, but corresponding data on patterns of relatedness are unavailable; this lack of data makes it difficult to assess the relative importance of selection pressures favouring cooperative behaviour within and among groups. Therefore we conducted a longitudinal analysis of relatedness within a single large clan of spotted hyenas, as well as a cross-sectional analysis of relatedness among hyenas from multiple clans. Within a clan, patterns of relatedness reflected known pedigree relationships, and relatedness was higher within than among matrilines, even across generations. Although mean within-matriline relatedness varied among matrilines, it did not decline with matriline rank. On average, clan members were not related closely, due to high levels of male-mediated gene flow among clans, and relatedness declined very slightly across clan borders. Low mean relatedness within clans suggests that spotted hyenas cooperate with unrelated clan-mates against close paternal kin in other clans. Our data also suggest that spotted hyenas must derive large net direct fitness benefits from group living and cooperation.     

Mnd1 is required for meiotic interhomolog repair

BACKGROUND: While double-strand break (DSB) repair is vital to the survival of cells during both meiosis and mitosis, the preferred mechanism of repair differs drastically between the two types of cell cycle. Thus, during meiosis, it is the homologous chromosome rather than the sister chromatid that is used as a repair template. RESULTS: Cells attempting to undergo meiosis in the absence of Mnd1 arrest in prophase I due to the activation of the Mec1 DNA-damage checkpoint accumulating hyperresected DSBs and aberrant synapsis. Sporulation of mnd1Delta strains can be restored by deleting RED1 or HOP1, which permits repair of DSBs by using the sister chromatid as a repair template. Mnd1 localizes to chromatin as foci independently of DSB formation, axial element (AE) formation, and synaptonemal complex (SC) formation and does not colocalize with Rad51. Mnd1 does not preferentially associate with hotspots of recombination. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that Mnd1 acts specifically to promote DSB repair by using the homologous chromosome as a repair template. The presence of Rec8, Red1, or Hop1 renders Mnd1 indispensable for DNA repair, presumably through the establishment of interhomolog (IH) bias. Localization studies suggest that Mnd1 carries out this function without being specifically recruited to the sites of DNA repair. We propose a model in which Mnd1 facilitates chromatin accessibility, which is required to allow strand invasion in meiotic chromatin.     

Through enhanced tree dynamics carbon dioxide enrichment may cause tropical forests to lose carbon

The fixation and storage of C by tropical forests, which contain close to half of the globe's biomass C, may be affected by elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration. Classical theoretical approaches assume a uniform stimulation of photosynthesis and growth across taxa. Direct assessments of the C balance either by flux studies or by repeated forest inventories also suggest a current net uptake, although magnitudes sometimes exceed those missing required to balance the global C cycle. Reasons for such discrepancies may lie in the nature of forest dynamics and in differential responses of taxa or plant functional types. In this contribution I argue that CO2 enrichment may cause forests to become more dynamic and that faster tree turnover may in fact convert a stimulatory effect of elevated CO2 on photosynthesis and growth into a long-term net biomass C loss by favouring shorter-lived trees of lower wood density. At the least, this is a scenario that deserves inclusion into long-term projections of the C relations of tropical forests. Species and plant functional type specific responses ('biodiversity effects') and forest dynamics need to be accounted for in projections of future C storage and cycling in tropical forests.