Structural chromosome differentiation between Triticum timopheevii and T. turgidum and T. aestivum

 Chromosome pairing at metaphase-I was analyzed in F₁ hybrids among T. turgidum (AABB), T. aestivum (AABBDD), and T. timopheevii (A^tA^tGG) to study the chromosome structure of T. timopheevii relative to durum (T. turgidum) and bread (T. aestivum) wheats. Individual chromosomes and their arms were identified by means of C-banding. Homologous pairing between the A-genome chromosomes was similar in the three hybrid types AA^tBG, AA^tBGD, and AABBD. However, associations of B-G were less frequent than B-B. Homoeologous associations were also observed, especially in the AA^tBGD hybrids. T. timopheevii chromosomes 1A^t, 2A^t, 5A^t, 7A^t, 2G, 3G, 5G, and 6G do not differ structurally from their counterpart in the A and B genomes. Thus, these three polyploid species inherited translocation 5AL/4AL from the diploid A-genome donor. Chromosome rearrangements that occurred at the tetraploid level were different in T. turgidum and T. timopheevii. Translocation 4AL/7BS and a pericentric inversion of chromosome 4A originated only in the T. turgidum lineage. The two lines of T. timophevii studied carry four different translocations, 6A^tS/1GS, 1GS/4GS, 4GS/4A^tL, and 4A^tL/3A^tL, which most likely arose in that sequence. These structural differences support a diphyletic origin of polyploid wheats. Received: 15 June 1998 / Accepted: 19 August 1998     

Flow cytometry controls, instrument setup, and the determination of positivity.

A frequent goal of flow cytometric analysis is to classify cells as positive or negative for a given marker, or to determine the precise ratio of positive to negative cells. This requires good and reproducible instrument setup, and careful use of controls for analyzing and interpreting the data. The type of controls to include in various kinds of flow cytometry experiments is a matter of some debate and discussion. In this tutorial, we classify controls in various categories, describe the options within each category, and discuss the merits of each option.     

Volume changes upon addition of Ca2+ to calmodulin: Ca2+-calmodulin conformational states

Measurement of the volume change by a rapid density method upon sequential addition of calcium ion to calmodulin showed relatively large, nonuniform increases for the first 4 moles Ca2+ per mole calmodulin. Substantially larger volume increases (approximately 15 ml/mol protein) were observed upon addition of the second and fourth moles Ca2+ relative to the first and third moles added per mole calmodulin. A total volume increase of approximately 170 ml/mol protein attended the addition of 4 moles Ca2+, as expected for multidentate carboxylate coordination to metal ion. Marginal changes in volume were observed upon further additions, the data showing a remarkably sharp transition after [Ca2+]/[calmodulin] = 4. The results are consistent with an ordered binding of Ca2+ in which pair-wise additions produce similar volume changes; the volume change behavior, however, does not indicate an absence of distinct conformational states for a Ca2+(1)-calmodulin and a Ca2+(3)-calmodulin complex as has been proposed on the basis of 1H-NMR evidences.     

Alpha-toxin of Staphylococcus aureus.

Alpha-toxin, the major cytotoxic agent elaborated by Staphylococcus aureus, was the first bacterial exotoxin to be identified as a pore former. The protein is secreted as a single-chain, water-soluble molecule of Mr 33,000. At low concentrations (less than 100 nM), the toxin binds to as yet unidentified, high-affinity acceptor sites that have been detected on a variety of cells including rabbit erythrocytes, human platelets, monocytes and endothelial cells. At high concentrations, the toxin additionally binds via nonspecific absorption to lipid bilayers; it can thus damage both cells lacking significant numbers of the acceptor and protein-free artificial lipid bilayers. Membrane damage occurs in both cases after membrane-bound toxin molecules collide via lateral diffusion to form ring-structured hexamers. The latter insert spontaneously into the lipid bilayer to form discrete transmembrane pores of effective diameter 1 to 2 nm. A hypothetical model is advanced in which the pore is lined by amphiphilic beta-sheets, one surface of which interacts with lipids whereas the other repels apolar membrane constitutents to force open an aqueous passage. The detrimental effects of alpha-toxin are due not only to the death of susceptible targets, but also to the presence of secondary cellular reactions that can be triggered via Ca2+ influx through the pores. Well-studied phenomena include the stimulation of arachidonic acid metabolism, triggering of granule exocytosis, and contractile dysfunction. Such processes cause profound long-range disturbances such as development of pulmonary edema and promotion of blood coagulation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)