Carbon stocks in above‐ground biomass of monoculture plantations,mixed species plantations and environmental restoration plantings in north‐east Australia

Summary The emergence of carbon markets has provided a potential source of funding for reforestation projects. However, there is concern amongst ecologists that these markets will promote the establishment of monoculture plantations rather than more diverse restoration plantings, on the assumption that fast‐growing monocultures are likely to store more carbon than restoration plantings. We examined the validity of this assumption for three predominantly rainforest plantation types established in the moist tropical uplands of north‐east Australia: monoculture plantations of native rainforest conifers (n = 5, mean age 13 years); mixed species plantations of rainforest cabinet timber species, rainforest conifers and eucalypts (n = 5, mean age 13 years); and, environmental restoration plantings comprised mostly of a diverse range of rainforest trees (n = 10, mean age 14 years). We found that restoration plantings stored significantly more carbon in above‐ground biomass than monoculture plantations of native conifers (on average, 106 t vs 62 t carbon per ha); and tended to store more carbon than mixed species timber plantations which were intermediate in value (86 t carbon per ha). Carbon stocks were higher in restoration plantings than in monoculture and mixed species plantations for three reasons. First, and most importantly, restoration plantings were more densely stocked than monoculture and mixed species plantations. Second, there were more large diameter trees in restoration plantings than monoculture plantations. Third, the trees used in restoration plantings had a higher average wood density than the conifers used in monoculture plantations. While, on average, wood density was higher in mixed species plantations than restoration plantings, the much higher stocking rate of restoration plantings meant they stored more carbon than mixed species plantations. We conclude that restoration plantings in the moist tropics of north‐east Australia can accumulate relatively high amounts of carbon within two decades of establishment. Comparison with reference rainforest sites suggests that restoration plantings could maintain their high stocking rates (and therefore high biomass) as they develop in future decades. However, because restoration plantings are currently much more expensive to establish than monoculture plantations, restoration plantings are unlikely to be favoured by carbon markets. Novel reforestation techniques and designs are required if restoration plantings are to both provide habitat for rainforest biota and store carbon in biomass at a cost comparable to monoculture plantations.     

Vibrio cholerae persistence in aquatic environments and colonization of intestinal cells: involvement of a common adhesion mechanism

Forty-one Tnpho A mutants of Vibrio cholerae O1 classical strain CD81 were analyzed for their ability to interact with chitin particles, Tigriopus fulvus copepods and the Intestine 407 cell line compared to the parent strain. Thirteen mutants were less adhesive than CD81; in particular, T21, T33 and T87 were less adhesive towards all substrates and insensitive to inhibition by N-acetyl glucosamine (GlcNAc). By SDS-PAGE analysis of sarkosyl-insoluble membrane proteins (siMPs) isolated from mutants and parent, it was found that a 53 kDa siMP is missing in T21, T33 and T87 mutants. It is hypothesized that this protein might have the function to mediate adherence to GlcNAc-containing substrates both in the aquatic environment and in human intestine.     

Ligninolytic activity of tropical rainforest basidiomycetes

A total of 116 strains of Brazilian tropical rainforest basidiomycetes were evaluated in terms of their ability to oxidize the dye rhemazol brilliant blue R (RBBR) and guaiacol. Laccase and peroxidase activities were detected by the drop test using solutions of α-naphthol and pyrogallol, respectively. RBBR and guaiacol oxidation occurred in 96.6 and 87.1% of the strains tested, respectively. One hundred strains oxidized both substrates. In the drop test, most strains presented laccase (96.6%) and peroxidase (92.2%) activity. The quick screening method used here can be useful to identify ligninolytic fungal strains to be used in various biotechnological applications. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Laccase immobilization on enzymatically functionalized polyamide 6,6 fibres

Polyamide matrices, such as membranes, gels and non-wovens, have been applied as supports for enzyme immobilization, although in literature the enzyme immobilization on woven nylon matrices is rarely reported. In this work, a protocol for a Trametes hirsuta laccase immobilization using woven polyamide 6,6 (nylon) was developed. A 2⁴ full factorial design was used to study the influence of pH, spacer (1,6-hexanediamine), enzyme and crosslinker concentration on the efficiency of immobilization. The factors enzyme dosage and spacer seem to have played a critical role in the immobilization of laccase onto nylon support. Under optimized working conditions (29 U mL⁻¹ of laccase, 10% of glutaraldehyde, pH = 5.5, with the presence of the spacer), the half-life time attained was about 78 h (18% higher than that of free enzyme), the protein retention was 30% and the immobilization yield was 2%. The immobilized laccase has potential for application in the continuous decolourization of textile effluents, where it can be applied into a membrane reactor.     

Site-Specific Phosphorylation of the DNA Damage Response Mediator Rad9 by Cyclin-Dependent Kinases Regulates Activation of Checkpoint Kinase 1

The mediators of the DNA damage response (DDR) are highly phosphorylated by kinases that control cell proliferation, but little is known about the role of this regulation. Here we show that cell cycle phosphorylation of the prototypical DDR mediator Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rad9 depends on cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) complexes. We find that a specific G2/M form of Cdc28 can phosphorylate in vitro the N-terminal region of Rad9 on nine consensus CDK phosphorylation sites. We show that the integrity of CDK consensus sites and the activity of Cdc28 are required for both the activation of the Chk1 checkpoint kinase and its interaction with Rad9. We have identified T125 and T143 as important residues in Rad9 for this Rad9/Chk1 interaction. Phosphorylation of T143 is the most important feature promoting Rad9/Chk1 interaction, while the much more abundant phosphorylation of the neighbouring T125 residue impedes the Rad9/Chk1 interaction. We suggest a novel model for Chk1 activation where Cdc28 regulates the constitutive interaction of Rad9 and Chk1. The Rad9/Chk1 complex is then recruited at sites of DNA damage where activation of Chk1 requires additional DDR–specific protein kinases.     

Protein-induced surface structuring in myelin membrane monolayers

Monolayers prepared from myelin conserve all the compositional complexity of the natural membrane when spread at the air-water interface. They show a complex pressure-dependent surface pattern that, on compression, changes from the coexistence of two liquid phases to a viscous fractal phase embedded in a liquid phase. We dissected the role of major myelin protein components, myelin basic protein (MBP), and Folch-Lees proteolipid protein (PLP) as crucial factors determining the structural dynamics of the interface. By analyzing mixtures of a single protein with the myelin lipids we found that MBP and PLP have different surface pressure-dependent behaviors. MBP stabilizes the segregation of two liquid phases at low pressures and becomes excluded from the film under compression, remaining adjacent to the interface. PLP, on the contrary, organizes a fractal-like pattern at all surface pressures when included in a monolayer of the protein-free myelin lipids but it remains mixed in the MBP-induced liquid phase. The resultant surface topography and dynamics is regulated by combined near to equilibrium and out-of-equilibrium effects. PLP appears to act as a surface skeleton for the whole components whereas MBP couples the structuring to surface pressure-dependent extrusion and adsorption processes.     

Chestnut cultivar diversification process in the Iberian Peninsula, Canary Islands, and Azores

This is a large-scale molecular study based on simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci of the diversification process in chestnut cultivars from Portugal and Spain, from the northern Iberian Peninsula to the Canary Islands and the Azores. A total of 593 grafted chestnut trees (Castanea sativa Mill.) were analysed with 10 SSRs: 292 from Portugal and 301 from Spain. Some of the trees studied were more than 300 years old. Accessions were analysed using a model-based Bayesian procedure to assess the geographical structure and to assign individuals to reconstructed populations based on the SSR genotypes. We found 356 different genotypes with a mean value of clonality of 33% owing to grafting. Mutations accounted for 6%, with hybridization being the main diversification process that can explain the great diversity found. Ten main cultivar groups were detected: four in northern Spain, five in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula, and one in southern Spain related to the centre of the Iberian Peninsula. This work demonstrated that cultivar origin and the diversification process was a combination of clonal propagation of selected seedlings, hybridization, and mutations, which allowed high levels of diversity to be maintained with respect to selected clones for fruit production. Furthermore, seedlings and graft sticks facilitated the transport to new destinations in the colonization process, transporting sometimes more than 3000 km if we consider the Azores and the Canary Islands.