Neurophysiological and Behavioral Changes in Non-Target Wildlife Exposed to Organophosphate and Carbamate Pesticides: Thermoregulation, Food Consumption, and Reproduction

Originally utilized or developed as human poisons, anticholinesterasecompounds are among the most widely used pesticides in the worldand non-target wildlife are frequently exposed. Because thesecompounds primarily act by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase atsynapses within the central and peripheral nervous systems,the potential for altering physiological and behavioral responsesessential for survival and reproduction in exposed animals isgreat. We review the effects of acute but sublethal exposureto organophosphates and carbamates on thermoregulation (hypothermia),food consumption (anorexia and altered foraging behavior), andreproduction (altered hormone levels, reductions in clutch andlitter size, and alterations in reproductive behavior), andthe mechanisms believed to cause them. We believe these arethe direct toxic effects most likely to reduce populations offree-living birds and mammals within treated areas. Data fromstudies of captive birds and laboratory mammals and free-livingindividuals given controlled dosages are included with an emphasison information published within the last 5 years. The limitationsof existing data for determining the biological and regulatorysignificance of these effects are discussed.     

Recent decline in precipitation and tree growth in the eastern Mediterranean

We present evidence of a recent drying in the eastern Mediterranean, based on weather and tree‐ring data for Samos, an island of the eastern Aegean Sea. Rainfall declined rapidly after the late 1970s following trends for the entire Mediterranean and was associated with reduced tree‐ring width in Pinus brutia. The most recent decline led to the lowest annual radial stem increment after the last 100 years (as far as records reach). As moisture availability decreased best correlations of tree growth with rainfall were obtained for progressively longer integration periods (1–2 years in moister periods, 5–6 years during the severe dryness of 20th century's last decades), suggesting increasing dependency in deep soil water. Such long‐term integration periods of tree‐growth responses to precipitation have not been reported before. They may reflect a tree‐rooting pattern adapted to cope with even several successive dry years. In late summer 2000, moisture reserves became exhausted, however, and a substantial fraction of low altitude pines died, including some 80‐year‐old trees, which underlines the exceptional extent this trend had reached. Our findings provide empirical support for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change projections derived from global circulation models that the Mediterranean, its eastern basin in particular, should become drier as temperature rises, as was the case in the recent past.     

Electron transfer of dissolved organic matter and its potential significance for anaerobic respiration in a northern bog

We investigated electron transfer processes of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and their potential importance for anaerobic heterotrophic respiration in a northern peatland. Electron accepting and donating capacities (EAC, EDC) of DOM were quantified using dissolved H₂S and ferric iron as reactants. Carbon turnover rates were obtained from porewater profiles (CO₂, CH₄) and inverse modeling. Carbon dioxide was released at rates of 0.2–5.9 mmol m⁻² day⁻¹ below the water table. Methane (CH₄) formation contributed <10%, and oxygen consumption 2% to 40%, leaving a major fraction of CO₂ production unexplained. DOM oxidized H₂S to thiosulfate and was reduced by dissolved ferric iron. Reduction with H₂S increased the subsequently determined EDC compared to untreated controls, indicating a reversibility of the electron transfer. In situ redox capacities of DOM ranged from 0.2 to 6.1 mEq g⁻¹ C (EAC) and from 0.0 to 1.4 mEq g⁻¹ C (EDC), respectively. EAC generally decreased with depth and changed after a water table drawdown and rebound by 20 and −45 mEq m⁻², respectively. The change in EAC during the water table fluctuation was similar to CH₄ formation rates. In peatlands, electron transfer of DOM may thus significantly contribute to the oxidation of reduced organic substrates by anaerobic heterotrophic respiration, or by maintaining the respiratory activity of sulfate reducers via provision of thiosulfate. Part of the anaerobic electron flow in peat soils is thus potentially diverted from methanogenesis, decreasing its contribution to the total carbon emitted to the atmosphere.     

Morphometric and morphological delineation of southern African species of Aethomys (Rodentia: Muridae)

Five species of African rock rats, Aethomys namaquensis, A. granti, A. silindensis, A. nyikae and A. chrysophilus, have to date been recognized in southern Africa. While the first three species are craniometrically well-delineated, morphometric analysis of cytogenetically known and other specimens of A. chrysophilus revealed that it comprises two sympatric, morphologically similar species, the nominate species and the newly recognized A. ineptus. This is in agreement with observations on cranial morphology and earlier investigations involving cytogenetics, protein electrophoresis, and gross sperm and bacular morphology. Contrary to published reports, the Central African A. nyikae does not extend into southern Africa, and the single previous record from eastern Zimbabwe is probably based on a misidentification.     

Pigmented Human Skin Equivalent: New Method of Reconstitution by Grafting an Epithelial Sheet Onto a Non-Contractile Dermal Equivalent

We have established a new protocol for reconstituting a pigmented human skin equivalent (PSE) and have evaluated its functional responses to environmental stimulus, UVB. The PSE is reconstituted by grafting an epithelial sheet consisting of keratinocytes and melanocytes onto a porous non-contractile dermal equivalent populated with mitotically and metabolically active fibroblasts. i) The PSE has a multilayered, well-differentiated epidermis with cuboidal basal cells and highly organised dermis with newly synthesised extracellular matrix components. ii) Ki67-positive proliferating keratinocytes (18.1 ± 7.4%) were detected on the basal layer of the epidermis. iii) Melanocytes located exclusively within the basal layer were detected by monoclonal antibody against tyrosinase-related protein (TRP-1). iv) After exposure to UVB (100 mJ/cm² per day) for 7 consecutive days, the intensity of TRP-1 staining was increased in the PSE, showing their functional state, whereas the number of melanocytes was not changed. This non-contractile and functioning new PSE is potentially useful as a model for studying the role of melanocyte-keratinocyte-fibroblast interactions in photoprotection of the skin in more complex cutaneous microenvironment than monolayer culture, and for developing in vitro disease models and therapeutic protocols with genetically altered cells both in epidermis and dermis.     

Electric Fencing as a Measure to Reduce Moose-Vehicle Collisions

Abstract: We tested the effectiveness of electric fences to reduce moose (Alces alces)-vehicle collisions in 2 fenced sectors (5 km and 10 km) using weekly track surveys and Global Positioning System telemetry. Number of moose tracks along highways decreased by approximately 80% following fence installation. Only 30% (16/53) of moose tracks observed on the road side of the fence were left by moose that crossed an operational fence; moose mostly entered the fenced corridor through openings (e.g., secondary roads) or at fence extremities. Electric fences also prevented 78% (7/9) of collared moose from crossing the highway in fenced sectors. Fences were less effective during occasional power failures. We suggest that circuit breakers should be used to prevent power failures and that there should be no opening along the fence line unless anti-ungulate structures are used.     

PHOSPHATIZED SOFT-TISSUE IN TRIASSIC BIVALVES

Abstract: Exceptionally preserved specimens of the genera Myophoria, Neoschizodus and Trigonodus (Bivalvia, Palaeoheterodonta, Trigonioida) from carbonate sediments of the Muschelkalk (Anisian, Ladinian) contain phosphatized soft‐tissues. This is the oldest record of soft‐tissue preservation in bivalves and the first from the German Muschelkalk. The phosphatized remains are here interpreted as relics of the originally chitinous gill supports, the gill axis, the labial palps (?), the adductor muscles, the pedal retractor muscles, the mantle margin including the radial mantle musculature, and the ‘siphons’. According to microprobe analysis, the mineral replacing the soft‐tissue is mainly apatite and, more rarely, francolite. Additionally, quartz filled voids within the gill supports, and in one sample it occurs in minute crystals in the phosphatized remains of the adductor muscle of Neoschizodus. Myophoria, Neoschizodus and Trigonodus were soft‐bottom dwellers and five of the specimens were discovered in life position. This is indicated by geopetal structures in three specimens.     

The influence of recent geography, palaeogeography and climate on the composition of the fauna of the central Aegean Islands

Partial Mantel tests and structural equation models were used to investigate the influence of recent geography, palaeogeography and climate on the composition of the fauna of the central Aegean Islands. The composition of land snail and isopod island faunas was significantly influenced by recent and by Pliocene geography. Only Pleistocene palaeogeography had a significant influence on the composition of tenebrionid beetle island faunas. The composition of butterfly island faunas was influenced by recent and by Miocene geographical distances. The composition of reptile island faunas was correlated with recent and Pliocene geography as well as with Pleistocene and/or Miocene geographical distances. Island area influenced only the composition of the island faunas of the volant butterflies, and not that of the less mobile land snails, land isopods, tenebrionid beetles and reptiles. This might indicate that butterflies are able to colonize large islands with suitable habitats even if such islands are comparatively far from source areas more frequently than can the nonvolant groups. Influence of a climatic parameter, namely annual precipitation, on faunal composition was found only for reptiles.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 84 , 785–795.     

Global warming will affect the genetic diversity and uniqueness of Lycaena helle populations

The climate warming of the postglacial has strongly reduced the distribution of cold‐adapted species over most of Central Europe. Such taxa have therefore become extinct over most of the lowlands and shifted to higher altitudes where they have survived to the present day. The lycaenid butterfly Lycaena helle follows this pattern of former widespread distribution and later restriction to mountain areas such as the European middle mountains. We sampled 203 individuals from 10 populations representing six mountain ranges (Pyrenees, Jura, Massif Central, Morvan, Vosges and Ardennes) over the species' western distribution. Allozyme and microsatellite polymorphisms were analysed to study the genetic status of these highly fragmented populations. Both molecular marker systems revealed a strong genetic differentiation among the analysed populations, coinciding with the orographic structure and highly restricted gene flow among them. The large‐scale genetic differentiation is more pronounced in allozymes (F_CT: 0.326) than in microsatellites (R_CT: 0.113), but microsatellites show a higher resolution on the regional scale (R_SC: 0.082) compared with allozymes (F_SC: n.s.). For both analytical tools, we found private alleles occurring exclusively in a single mountain area. The highly fragmented and isolated occurrence of populations is supported by the distribution pattern of potentially suitable climate suggested by species distribution models. Model projections under two climate warming scenarios predict a decline of climatically suitable areas, which will result in the extinction of most of the populations showing unique genetic characteristics.