Time course of air hunger mirrors the biphasic ventilatory response to hypoxia.

Determining response dynamics of hypoxic air hunger may provide information of use in clinical practice and will improve understanding of basic dyspnea mechanisms. It is hypothesized that air hunger arises from projection of reflex brain stem ventilatory drive ("corollary discharge") to forebrain centers. If perceptual response dynamics are unmodified by events between brain stem and cortical awareness, this hypothesis predicts that air hunger will exactly track ventilatory response. Thus, during sustained hypoxia, initial increase in air hunger would be followed by a progressive decline reflecting biphasic reflex ventilatory drive. To test this prediction, we applied a sharp-onset 20-min step of normocapnic hypoxia and compared dynamic response characteristics of air hunger with that of ventilation in 10 healthy subjects. Air hunger was measured during mechanical ventilation (minute ventilation = 9 +/- 1.4 l/min; end-tidal Pco(2) = 37 +/- 2 Torr; end-tidal Po(2) = 45 +/- 7 Torr); ventilatory response was measured during separate free-breathing trials in the same subjects. Discomfort caused by "urge to breathe" was rated every 30 s on a visual analog scale. Both ventilatory and air hunger responses were modeled as delayed double exponentials corresponding to a simple linear first-order response but with a separate first-order adaptation. These models provided adequate fits to both ventilatory and air hunger data (r(2) = 0.88 and 0.66). Mean time constant and time-to-peak response for the average perceptual response (0.36 min(-1) and 3.3 min, respectively) closely matched corresponding values for the average ventilatory response (0.39 min(-1) and 3.1 min). Air hunger response to sustained hypoxia tracked ventilatory drive with a delay of approximately 30 s. Our data provide further support for the corollary discharge hypothesis for air hunger.     

Clinical-grade manufacturing of DC from CD14+ precursors: experience from phase I clinical trials in CML and malignant melanoma

BACKGROUND: We evaluated a clinical-grade protocol for the manufacture of mature DC from CD14 + precursors derived from normal donors and patients suffering from CML and stage IV malignant melanoma. We manufactured six products for CML patients and five for melanoma patients and administered them as vaccines in phase I clinical trials. METHODS: We isolated CD 14+ cells from apheresis products by immunomagnetic separation and incubated them in X-VIVO 15' medium supplemented with human AB serum, GM-CSF and IL-4 for 7 days, and with additional tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a, IL-lIf, IL-6 and prostaglandin E2 for 3 days. Some cells were electroporated and transfected with mRNA isolated from melanoma tissue. DC were characterized by flow cytometry for the expression of CD83, CD86 andCD14. RESULTS: CD14+ cells constituted 14.4+/-6.2% (mean + SD) of nucleated cells in apheresis products and 98.3+/- 3.6% of isolated cells. Normal DC and CML DC were 77.4+/-7.3% CD83+ and 93.5+/- 7.0% CD86+.Corresponding values for electroporated DC from melanoma patients were 66.1 + 7.2% and 94.1 + 7.8%. The yield of CD83+ DC from isolated CD14+ cells was 18.1 + 7.2% for normal and CML patients and 9.8 + 3.7% for melanoma patients. DC viability was 92.7 + 5.8%; after cryopreservation and thawing it was 77+/-13.5%. DISCUSSION: Our method yielded viable and mature DC free of bacteria and mycoplasma. This robust and reproducible method provides cells of consistent phenotype and viability. Cryopreservation in single-dose aliquots allows multiple DC vaccine doses to be manufactured from a single apheresis product.     

The status of Haemogregarina mansoni Sambon and Seligmann from Zamenis flagelliformis Laurenti

Haemogregarina mansoni Sambon and Seligmann 1907, a parasite of the coachwhip snake (Masticophis flagellum) is redescribed on the basis of sporogonic stages obtained in the experimental vector Aedes aegypti and designated as Hepatozoon mansoni from hosts collected in north Florida. Gamonts average 14.7 x 4.7 (13-16 x 4-6) and are not recurved, with nuclei situated in the second quarter of the gamont. Erythrocyte cytoplasm is often thin, appearing partially dehemoglobinized, or contracted into a central mass with infected erythrocytes always distorted, longer, and more slender than uninfected cells. Sporogony occurred within the head and thorax of A. aegypti. Oocysts were spherical to ovoid, 144.2 x 126.1 (79-198 x 69-178), containing on average 29.2 (7-64) sporocysts. Sporocysts were spherical to ovoid, 33.1 x 29.8 (19-48 x 18-44), with 20.2 (12-32) sporozoites contained within. Experimental infection in Tantilla relicta produced gamonts that did not differ from those in M. flagellum, but dehemoglobinization and cytoplasmic contraction of the host erythrocyte did not occur, and persistent merogonic stages were not present in the tissues.     

Cytochrome bo(3) from Escherichia coli: the binding and turnover of nitric oxide

The reaction of nitric oxide (NO) with fast and reduced cytochrome bo(3)(cyt bo(3)) from Escherichia coli has been investigated. The stoichiometry of NO binding to cyt bo(3) was determined using an NO electrode in the [NO] range 1-14 microM. Under reducing conditions, the initial decrease in [NO] following the addition of cyt bo(3) corresponded to binding of 1 NO molecule per cyt bo(3) functional unit. After this "rapid" NO binding phase, there was a slow, but significant rate of NO consumption ( approximately 0.3molNOmol bo(3)(-1)min(-1)), indicating that cyt bo(3) possesses a low level of NO reductase activity. The binding of NO to fast pulsed enzyme was also investigated. The results show that in the [NO] range used (1-14 microM) both fast and pulsed oxidised cyt bo(3) bind NO with a stoichiometry of 1:1 with an observed dissociation constant of K(d)=5.6+/-0.6 microM and that NO binding was inhibited by the presence of Cl(-). The binding of nitrite to the binuclear centre causes spectral changes similar to those observed upon NO binding to fast cyt bo(3). These results are discussed in relation to the model proposed by Wilson and co-workers [FEBS Lett. 414 (1997) 281] where the binding of NO to Cu(B)(II) results in the formation of the nitrosonium (Cu(B)(I)-NO(+)) complex. NO(+) then reacts with OH(-), a Cu(B) ligand, to form nitrite, which can bind at the binuclear centre. This work suggests for the first time that the binding of NO to oxidised cyt bo(3) does result in the reduction of Cu(B).     

Stable isotope labelling in vivo as an aid to protein identification in peptide mass fingerprinting

Peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) is a powerful technique for identification of proteins derived from in-gel digests by virtue of their matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectra. However, there are circumstances where the under-representation of peptides in the mass spectrum and the complexity of the source proteome mean that PMF is inadequate as an identification tool. In this paper, we show that identification is substantially enhanced by inclusion of composition data for a single amino acid. Labelling in vivo with a stable isotope labelled amino acid (in this paper, decadeuterated leucine) identifies the number of such amino acids in each digest fragment, and show a considerable gain in the ability of PMF to identify the parent protein. The method is tolerant to the extent of labelling, and as such, may be applicable to a range of single cell systems.     

Cell compartmentalisation in planctomycetes: novel types of structural organisation for the bacterial cell

The organisation of cells of the planctomycete species Pirellula marina, Isosphaera pallida, Gemmata obscuriglobus, Planctomyces maris and "Candidatus Brocadia anammoxidans" was investigated based on ultrastructure derived from thin-sections of cryosubstituted cells, freeze-fracture replicas, and in the case of Gemmata obscuriglobus and Pirellula marina, computer-aided 3-D reconstructions from serial sections of cryosubstituted cells. All planctomycete cells display a peripheral ribosome-free region, termed here the paryphoplasm, surrounding the perimeter of the cell, and an interior region including any nucleoid regions as well as ribosome-like particles, bounded by a single intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM), and termed the pirellulosome in Pirellula species. Immunogold labelling and RNase-gold cytochemistry indicates that in planctomycetes all the cell DNA is contained wholly within the interior region bounded by the ICM, and the paryphoplasm contains no DNA but at least some of the cell's RNA. The ICM in Isosphaera pallida and Planctomyces maris is invaginated such that the paryphoplasm forms a major portion of the cell interior in sections, but in other planctomycetes it remains as a peripheral zone. In the anaerobic ammonium-oxidising ("anammox" process) chemoautotroph "Candidatus Brocadia anammoxidans" the interior region bounded by ICM contains a further internal single-membrane-bounded region, the anammoxosome. In Gemmata obscuriglobus, the interior ICM-bounded region contains the nuclear body, a double-membrane-bounded region containing the cell's nucleoid and all genomic DNA in addition to some RNA. Shared features of cell compartmentalisation in different planctomycetes are consistent with the monophyletic nature of the planctomycetes as a distinct division of the Bacteria. The shared organisational plan for the planctomycete cell constitutes a new type not known in cells of other bacteria.     

Membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase and gelatinase A synergistically degrade type 1 collagen in a cell model

A fibrosarcoma cell line transfected with the matrix metalloproteinase MT1 MMP showed an enhanced ability to degrade 14C-labelled collagen films. As previously shown for proMMP 2 activation, TIMP 1 was an ineffective inhibitor of the process of collagenolysis whereas TIMP 2 was efficient and completely prevented collagen degradation. In the presence of the calcium ionophore, ionomycin, proteolytic processing of MT1 MMP was restricted and collagenolysis did not occur indicating that the 63 kDa form of the enzyme is not a functional collagenase. The collagenolytic activity of MT1 MMP was shown to be enhanced by the addition of proMMP 2, but TIMP 1 inhibition remained poor relative to that of TIMP 2. The study demonstrated that synergy between two non-conventional collagenases effectively degrades insoluble pericellular collagen. Due to the membrane localisation of MT1 MMP, this could potentially occur in a highly localised manner.     

Lipopolysaccharide induces Rac1-dependent reactive oxygen species formation and coordinates tumor necrosis factor-alpha secretion through IKK regulation of NF-kappa B

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important second messengers generated in response to many types of environmental stress. In this setting, changes in intracellular ROS can activate signal transduction pathways that influence how cells react to their environment. In sepsis, a dynamic proinflammatory cellular response to bacterial toxins (e.g. lipopolysaccharide or LPS) leads to widespread organ damage and death. The present study demonstrates for the first time that the activation of Rac1 (a GTP-binding protein), and the subsequent production of ROS, constitutes a major pathway involved in NFkappaB-mediated tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) secretion following LPS challenge in macrophages. Expression of a dominant negative mutant of Rac1 (N17Rac1) reduced Rac1 activation, ROS formation, NFkappaB activation, and TNFalpha secretion following LPS stimulation. In contrast, expression of a dominant active form of Rac1 (V12Rac1) mimicked these effects in the absence of LPS stimulation. IKKalpha and IKKbeta were both required downstream modulators of LPS-activated Rac1, since the expression of either of the IKK dominant mutants (IKKalphaKM or IKKbetaKA) drastically reduced NFkappaB-dependent TNFalpha secretion. Moreover, studies using CD14 blocking antibodies suggest that Rac1 induces TNFalpha secretion through a pathway independent of CD14. However, a maximum therapeutic inhibition of LPS-induced TNFalpha secretion occurred when both CD14 and Rac1 pathways were inhibited. Our results suggest that targeting both Rac1- and CD14-dependent pathways could be a useful therapeutic strategy for attenuating the proinflammatory cytokine response during the course of sepsis.     

Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis triggers intestinal pathophysiologic changes in beige/scid mice

We investigated whether infection of beige/scid mice with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis can induce intestinal pathophysiologic changes. Six-week-old beige/scid mice were inoculated intraperitoneally with M. paratuberculosis, then were killed 32 weeks after inoculation when the small intestine was evaluated for physiologic and morphologic abnormalities. All infected mice developed clinical disease. The lamina propria of the intestine from infected mice was mildly infiltrated with mononuclear cells containing acid-fast bacteria, and had significantly increased villus width. In vitro physiologic studies in Ussing chambers indicated that M. paratuberculosis infection caused significant abnormalities in intestinal transport parameters. Baseline short circuit current and potential difference were abnormally high in tissues from infected, compared with control mice, indicative of increased ion secretion. Baseline conductance was significantly decreased in infected mice, suggesting that intestinal tissue from infected mice was less permeable to ions. The change in short circuit current following transmural electrical and glucose stimulation was significantly reduced in intestines from infected mice, suggesting that inflamed intestine had neural and/or epithelial cell damage. We conclude that infection of beige/scid mice with M. paratuberculosis triggers significant intestinal pathophysiologic changes consistent with chronic inflammation. These functional abnormalities may contribute to the pathogenesis of the wasting syndrome seen in bovids with paratuberculosis. This animal model provides evidence that T cell-independent mechanisms are sufficient to cause mucosal pathophysiologic changes and inflammation in response to a specific pathogen, and may be of relevance to inflammatory bowel disease in humans.     

The economic costs of wildlife predation on livestock in Gokwe communal land, Zimbabwe

In areas bordering wildlife reserves in Zimbabwe, agro-pastoralists suffer livestock depredation by wild carnivores. However, the economic value of these losses, and therefore the levels of compensation required has never been calculated. Between January 1993 and June 1996 in a 33-km² area of Gokwe communal land bordering the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, 241 livestock were killed by wild carnivores. Baboons ( Papio ursinus Kerr), lions ( Panthera leo Linnaeus) and leopards ( P. pardus Linnaeus) were the most serious predators, contributing 52%, 34% and 12% of kills, respectively. Baboons only killed young goats ( Capra hircus Linnaeus) and sheep ( Ovis aries Linnaeus) by day, while lions and leopards jumped into fortified kraals at night and killed cattle ( Bos indicus Linnaeus), donkeys ( Equus asinus Linnaeus) and smallstock. In 1995, predators killed 5% of livestock holdings, double that recorded by other African studies. The annual total value of losses depended upon the degree of lion predation on the most valuable species, cattle and donkeys. The average annual loss per livestock-owning household was US$13, or 12% of each household's net annual income. Losses could be reduced by improving kraal defences against lion and leopard predation in the dry season, when attacks were most common.