Identification of an allosteric binding site for Zn2+ on the beta2 adrenergic receptor

The activity of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can be modulated by a diverse spectrum of drugs ranging from full agonists to partial agonists, antagonists, and inverse agonists. The vast majority of these ligands compete with native ligands for binding to orthosteric binding sites. Allosteric ligands have also been described for a number of GPCRs. However, little is known about the mechanism by which these ligands modulate the affinity of receptors for orthosteric ligands. We have previously reported that Zn(II) acts as a positive allosteric modulator of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor (beta(2)AR). To identify the Zn(2+) binding site responsible for the enhancement of agonist affinity in the beta(2)AR, we mutated histidines located in hydrophilic sequences bridging the seven transmembrane domains. Mutation of His-269 abolished the effect of Zn(2+) on agonist affinity. Mutations of other histidines had no effect on agonist affinity. Further mutagenesis of residues adjacent to His-269 demonstrated that Cys-265 and Glu-225 are also required to achieve the full allosteric effect of Zn(2+) on agonist binding. Our results suggest that bridging of the cytoplasmic extensions of TM5 and TM6 by Zn(2+) facilitates agonist binding. These results are in agreement with recent biophysical studies demonstrating that agonist binding leads to movement of TM6 relative to TM5.     

Affinity and specificity of interactions between Nedd4 isoforms and the epithelial Na+ channel

The epithelial Na+ channel (alphabetagammaENaC) regulates salt and fluid homeostasis and blood pressure. Each ENaC subunit contains a PY motif (PPXY) that binds to the WW domains of Nedd4, a Hect family ubiquitin ligase containing 3-4 WW domains and usually a C2 domain. It has been proposed that Nedd4-2, but not Nedd4-1, isoforms can bind to and suppress ENaC activity. Here we challenge this notion and show that, instead, the presence of a unique WW domain (WW3*) in either Nedd4-2 or Nedd4-1 determines high affinity interactions and the ability to suppress ENaC. WW3* from either Nedd4-2 or Nedd4-1 binds ENaC-PY motifs equally well (e.g. Kd approximately 10 microm for alpha- or betaENaC, 3-6-fold higher affinity than WW4), as determined by intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence. Moreover, dNedd4-1, which naturally contains a WW3* instead of WW2, is able to suppress ENaC function equally well as Nedd4-2. Homology models of the WW3*.betaENaC-PY complex revealed that a Pro and Ala conserved in all WW3*, but not other Nedd4-WW domains, help form the binding pocket for PY motif prolines. Extensive contacts are formed between the betaENaC-PY motif and the Pro in WW3*, and the small Ala creates a large pocket to accommodate the peptide. Indeed, mutating the conserved Pro and Ala in WW3* reduces binding affinity 2-3-fold. Additionally, we demonstrate that mutations in PY motif residues that form contacts with the WW domain based on our previously solved structure either abolish or severely reduce binding affinity to the WW domain and that the extent of binding correlates with the level of ENaC suppression. Independently, we show that a peptide encompassing the PY motif of sgk1, previously proposed to bind to Nedd4-2 and alter its ability to regulate ENaC, does not bind (or binds poorly) the WW domains of Nedd4-2. Collectively, these results suggest that high affinity of WW domain-PY-motif interactions rather than affiliation with Nedd4-1/Nedd-2 is critical for ENaC suppression by Nedd4 proteins.     

Sialoside specificity of the siglec family assessed using novel multivalent probes: identification of potent inhibitors of myelin-associated glycoprotein

Ten of the 11 known human siglecs or their murine orthologs have been evaluated for their specificity for over 25 synthetic sialosides representing most of the major sequences terminating carbohydrate groups of glycoproteins and glycolipids. Analysis has been performed using a novel multivalent platform comprising biotinylated sialosides bound to a streptavidin-alkaline phosphatase conjugate. Each siglec was found to have a unique specificity for binding 16 different sialoside-streptavidin-alkaline phosphatase probes. The relative affinities of monovalent sialosides were assessed for each siglec in competitive inhibition studies. The quantitative data obtained allows a detailed analysis of each siglec for the relative importance of sialic acid and the penultimate oligosaccharide sequence on binding affinity and specificity. Most remarkable was the finding that myelin-associated glycoprotein (Siglec-4) binds with 500-10,000-fold higher affinity to a series of mono- and di-sialylated derivatives of the O-linked T-antigen (Galbeta(1-3)-GalNAc(alpha)OThr) as compared with alpha-methyl-NeuAc.     

Functional characterization and crystal structure of the C215D mutant of protein-tyrosine phosphatase-1B

We have characterized the C215D active-site mutant of protein-tyrosine phosphatase-1B (PTP-1B) and solved the crystal structure of the catalytic domain of the apoenzyme to a resolution of 1.6 A. The mutant enzyme displayed maximal catalytic activity at pH approximately 4.5, which is significantly lower than the pH optimum of 6 for wild-type PTP-1B. Although both forms of the enzyme exhibited identical Km values for hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl phosphate at pH 4.5 and 6, the kcat values of C215D were approximately 70- and approximately 7000-fold lower than those of wild-type PTP-1B, respectively. Arrhenius plots revealed that the mutant and wild-type enzymes displayed activation energies of 61 +/- 1 and 18 +/- 2 kJ/mol, respectively, at their pH optima. Unlike wild-type PTP-1B, C215D-mediated p-nitrophenyl phosphate hydrolysis was inactivated by 1,2-epoxy-3-(p-nitrophenoxy)propane, suggesting a direct involvement of Asp215 in catalysis. Increasing solvent microviscosity with sucrose (up to 40% (w/v)) caused a significant decrease in kcat/Km of the wild-type enzyme, but did not alter the catalytic efficiency of the mutant protein. Structurally, the apoenzyme was identical to wild-type PTP-1B, aside from the flexible WPD loop region, which was in both "open" and "closed" conformations. At physiological pH, the C215D mutant of PTP-1B should be an effective substrate-trapping mutant that can be used to identify cellular substrates of PTP-1B. In addition, because of its insensitivity to oxidation, this mutant may be used for screening fermentation broth and other natural products to identify inhibitors of PTP-1B.     

Synchronized whole cell oscillations in mitochondrial metabolism triggered by a local release of reactive oxygen species in cardiac myocytes

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or Ca2+ overload can trigger depolarization of mitochondrial inner membrane potential (DeltaPsim) and cell injury. Little is known about how loss of DeltaPsim in a small number of mitochondria might influence the overall function of the cell. Here we employ the narrow focal excitation volume of the two-photon microscope to examine the effect of local mitochondrial depolarization in guinea pig ventricular myocytes. Remarkably, a single local laser flash triggered synchronized and self-sustained oscillations in DeltaPsim, NADH, and ROS after a delay of approximately 40s, in more than 70% of the mitochondrial population. Oscillations were initiated only after a specific threshold level of mitochondrially produced ROS was exceeded, and did not involve the classical permeability transition pore or intracellular Ca2+ overload. The synchronized transitions were abolished by several respiratory inhibitors or a superoxide dismutase mimetic. Anion channel inhibitors potentiated matrix ROS accumulation in the flashed region, but blocked propagation to the rest of the myocyte, suggesting that an inner membrane, superoxide-permeable, anion channel opens in response to free radicals. The transitions in mitochondrial energetics were tightly coupled to activation of sarcolemmal KATP currents, causing oscillations in action potential duration, and thus might contribute to catastrophic arrhythmias during ischemia-reperfusion injury.     

Src kinase mediates phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt-dependent rapid endothelial nitric-oxide synthase activation by estrogen

17beta-Estradiol activates endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), enhancing nitric oxide (NO) release from endothelial cells via the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase)/Akt pathway. The upstream regulators of this pathway are unknown. We now demonstrate that 17beta-estradiol rapidly activates eNOS through Src kinase in human endothelial cells. The Src family kinase specific-inhibitor 4-amino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine (PP2) abrogates 17beta-estradiol- but not ionomycin-stimulated NO release. Consistent with these results, PP2 blocked 17beta-estradiol-induced Akt phosphorylation but did not inhibit NO release from cells transduced with a constitutively active Akt. PP2 abrogated 17beta-estradiol-induced activation of PI3-kinase, indicating that the PP2-inhibitable kinase is upstream of PI3-kinase and Akt. A 17beta-estradiol-induced estrogen receptor/c-Src association correlated with rapid c-Src phosphorylation. Moreover, transfection of kinase-dead c-Src inhibited 17beta-estradiol-induced Akt phosphorylation, whereas constitutively active c-Src increased basal Akt phosphorylation. Estrogen stimulation of murine embryonic fibroblasts with homozygous deletions of the c-src, fyn, and yes genes failed to induce Akt phosphorylation, whereas cells maintaining c-Src expression demonstrated estrogen-induced Akt activation. Estrogen rapidly activated c-Src inducing an estrogen receptor, c-Src, and P85 (regulatory subunit of PI3-kinase) complex formation. This complex formation results in the successive activation of PI3-kinase, Akt, and eNOS with consequent enhanced NO release, implicating c-Src as a critical upstream regulator of the estrogen-stimulated PI3-kinase/Akt/eNOS pathway.     

Phosphorylation screening identifies translational initiation factor 4GII as an intracellular target of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase I

CaMKI is a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase that is widely expressed in eukaryotic cells and tissues but for which few, if any, physiological substrates are known. We screened a human lung cDNA expression library for potential CaMKI substrates by solid phase in situ phosphorylation ("phosphorylation screening"). Multiple overlapping partial length cDNAs encoding three proteins were detected. Two of these proteins are known: 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase and eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIF) 4GII. To determine whether CaMKI substrates identified by phosphorylation screening represent authentic physiological targets, we examined the potential for [Ca2+]i- and CaMKI-dependent phosphorylation of eIF4GII in vitro and in vivo. Endogenous eIF4GII immunoprecipitated from HEK293T cells was phosphorylated by CaMKI, in vitro as was a recombinant fragment of eIF4GII encompassing the central and C-terminal regions. The latter phosphorylation occurred with favorable kinetics (Km = 1 microm; kcat = 1.8 s-1) at a single site, Ser1156, located in a segment of eIF4GII aligning with the phosphoregion of eIF4GI. Phosphopeptide mapping and back phosphorylation experiments revealed [Ca2+]i-dependent, CaMKI site-specific, eIF4GII phosphorylation in vivo. This phosphorylation was blocked by kinase-negative CaMKI consistent with a requirement for endogenous CaMKI for in vivo eIF4GII phosphorylation. We conclude that phosphorylation screening is an effective method for searching for intracellular targets of CaMKI and may have identified a new role of Ca2+ signaling to the translation apparatus.