Ecological differences and competitive interaction between Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans in small laboratory populations

Summary In interspecific competition studies, some cases of apparent change in competitive ability have been reported. But the change in competitive outcome could equally well be due to character displacement. As a preliminary to studies of the effects of association of D. melanogaster (yellow white mutant strain) and D. simulans (vermilion mutant strain), the nature and extent of ecological differences between them, and the nature of their competitive interaction was studied. Differences between the strains were shown for oviposition site preferences, and for larval and pupal distribution. In pure species cultures, simulans showed a greater preference than melanogaster for oviposition in the center of the medium surface. In mixed populations, simulans had an increased preference for this oviposition site, where melanogaster was at low frequency. D. simulans larvae utilized the lower half of the medium to a significantly greater extent than did melanogaster. At low density (5 pairs of parents) in pure species cultures, 68.7% of simulans pupae were on the medium surface. As parental numbers increased, this proportion decreased. The distribution of melanogaster pupae was quite different, with only 8 to 12% on the medium at all densities. But the remaining pupae tended to occur higher on the cylinder wall as parental numbers increased. The competitive interaction changed during the developmental period. At four and eight days after culture initiation, simulans appeared superior, while for total adult progeny production, melanogaster was slightly superior. These strans of the two species were not ecologically equivalent.     

Selection for increased abdominal bristle number in Drosophila melanogaster with concurrent irradiation

Summary Replicate lines, each, with one hundred pairs of parents selected at 50% intensity, were derived from an inbred line. For twenty generations three lines were selected without irradiation and five with 1000 r X-rays per generation given to both females and males. After adjustment for level of crowding in the cultures, the final mean was 1.3 bristles higher in females and 1.0 bristles higher in males in the irradiated lines than in the unirradiated lines. In terms of phenotypic standard deviations in each sex in the base population, these total responses were 0.74 and 0.59 respectively. Radiation can induce mutations useful in increasing responses in selection programmes, but the average response attributable to radiation is small, and heterogeneity between replicate lines is to be expected.This work was carried out while B. H. was on leave from the New South Wales Department of Agriculture, and held a Commonwealth Research Studentship. Our thanks to Robin Hall and Tricia Brown for technical assistance, to Dr. B. L. Sheldon, C.S.I.R.O. Division of Animal Genetics, for providing the inbred line, and to the Radio-Therapy Unit, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, for the use of their equipment.     

Two Pathways of Glutamate Fermentation by Anaerobic Bacteria

Two pathways are involved in the fermentation of glutamate to acetate, butyrate, carbon dioxide, and ammonia-the methylaspartate and the hydroxyglutarate pathways which are used by Clostridium tetanomorphum and Peptococcus aerogenes, respectively. Although these pathways give rise to the same products, they are easily distinguished by different labeling patterns of the butyrate when [4-(14)C]glutamate is used as substrate. Schmidt degradation of the radioactive butyrate from C. tetanomorphum yielded equally labeled propionate and carbon dioxide, whereas nearly all the radioactivity of the butyrate from P. aerogenes was recovered in the corresponding propionate. This procedure was used as a test for the pathway of glutamate fermentation by 15 strains (9 species) of anaerobic bacteria. The labeling patterns of the butyrate indicate that glutamate is fermented via the methylaspartate pathway by C. tetani, C. cochlearium, and C. saccarobutyricum, and via the hydroxyglutarate pathway by Acidaminococcus fermentans, C. microsporum, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and F. fusiformis. Enzymes specific for each pathway were assayed in crude extracts of the above organisms. 3-Methylaspartase was found only in clostridia which use the methylaspartate pathway, including Clostridium SB4 and C. sticklandii, which probably degrade glutamate to acetate and carbon dioxide by using a second amino acid as hydrogen acceptor. High levels of 2-hydroxyglutarate dehydrogenase were found exclusively in organisms that use the hydroxyglutarate pathway. The data indicate that only two pathways are involved in the fermentation of glutamate by the bacteria analyzed. The methylaspartate pathway appears to be used only by species of Clostridium, whereas the hydroxyglutarate pathway is used by representatives of several genera.     

Effects of Population Size and Selection Intensity on Responses to Disruptive Selection in DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER

Disruptive selection for sternopleural bristle number with opportunity for random mating was done in the four treatment combinations of two population sizes (40 pairs and 8 pairs of selected parents) and two selection intensities (1 in 40 and 1 in 2). In each generation, matings among selected parents were observed in a mating chamber, and progeny collected separately from each female parent. In the high number, high selection intensity treatment, divergence between the high and low parts ceased about generation 11. The isolation index increased rapidly to generation 3, but then fluctuated to termination of the population at generation 17. The overall isolation index was significant, indicating a real tendency to assortative mating. The failure of the isolation index to increase after generation 3 was attributed to lower average mating fitness of high males (due to inbreeding) and reduced receptivity of low females (due to a homozygous lethal gene with a large effect on sternopleural bristle number in heterozygotes). In the two low number treatments, isolation indices fluctuated from generation to generation with no obvious trends, and none of the overall isolation indices were significantly different from zero. The high number, low selection intensity treatment showed very little divergence, and one of the replicates showed, in contrast with expectation and the high number, high selection intensity treatment, a significant tendency to disassortative mating. Intense disruptive selection may lead to assortative mating.     

Fusimotor innervation in the cat

The motor innervation of cat spindles was examined in hindlimb muscles using a variety of techniques employed in light and electron microscopy. Observations were made on teased, silver preparations of 267 spindles sampled from the peroneal, flexor hallucis longus, and soleus muscles, hereafter referred to as the PER/FHL/SOL series. The γ innervation. Trail endings are almost invariably present, and innervate both bag and chain muscle fibres. Trail fibres accounted for 64.6 to 74.8% of the total fusimotor supply to samples of spindle poles in the PER/FHL/SOL series, the mean number of fibres per pole varying from 2.7 to 5.0 in the different muscles, and the mean number of ramifications (areas of synaptic contact) per fibre being 3.7. By contrast, the p?innervation of a spindle pole generally consists of a single fibre supplying only one plate. In the above samples p(2) fibres accounted for 4.1 to 28.0% of the total fusimotor supply, and the mean number of fibres per pole varied from 0.3 to 1.2 in the different muscles. Ninety per cent of p(2) plates innervate bag fibres. The α innervation. The structure of p?plates as seen in both light and electron microscopy compares very closely with that of extrafusal plates. After nerve section p?plates degenerate at the same time as extrafusal plates, being the first of the three types of fusimotor ending to disappear. The frequency of the p?innervation is similar to that of the p?innervation. In the same samples of PER/FHL/SOL spindle poles as above p? fibres accounted for 6.0 to 28.8% of the total fusimotor supply, the mean number of fibres per pole varying from 0.25 to 2.1 in the different muscles. The majority of p? fibres enter a pole to terminate in one plate only. Seventy-five per cent of the plates innervate bag fibres. The three types of fusimotor ending are thus not selectively distributed to the two types of intrafusal muscle fibre. All three types of fusimotor fibre may branch within the spindle so as to innervate both bag and chain fibres. Bag fibres receive both types of plate ending as well as trail endings. Most chain fibres receive trail endings only; the rest receive either a p?or a p?plate innervation in addition, 25% of the p?and 10% of the p?innervation being distributed to chain fibres. The significance of this nonselective innervation is interpreted as indicating that the type of contraction elicited by stimulating a fusimotor fibre depends upon the type of ending initiating it rather than upon the type of muscle fibre executing it. Reasons are given for concluding that the dynamic response is controlled via the p?and p?plates, and that the static response is controlled by the trail endings. The participation of the α fibres in mammalian fusimotor innervation, previously regarded as a vestigial feature, proved to be widespread in the muscles studied and more prevalent in fast muscles (FHL, peroneus digiti quinti) than slow (soleus). A low frequency of p?innervation is offset by a high frequency of p?(as in peroneus longus), and vice versa (as in FHL). It is unlikely that collaterals from slow α fibres innervating type B muscle fibres are wholly responsible for the high frequency of the p?innervation in FHL, and it is suggested that collaterals may also be derived from fast α fibres innervating type C muscle fibres. The possibility of there being some motor fibres of α conduction velocity and with an exclusively fusimotor distribution is also taken into account.     

Partitioning of variance and estimation of genetic parameters for various bristle number characters ofDrosophila melanogaster

Summary Phenotypic variance for each of several bristle number characters (abdominal, sternopleural, second and third coxal) was partitioned using both hierarchal and dialled designs. Heritabilities and genetic correlations were estimated from parent-offspring regressions and correlations and half-sib correlations.A high proportion of the genetic variance for abdominal bristle number was due to epistatic and sex-linked gene action, but most of the genetic variance for the other characters was additive autosomal.The genetic correlations among sternopleural, and second and third coxal bristle numbers were all high, but that between abdominals and sternopleurals was low, while those between abdominals and either second or third coxals were virtually zero. An appreciable proportion of the covariance between abdominal and sternopleural bristle numbers was non-additive genetic.The diallel method gave more reliable estimates of genetic parameters when non-additive or sex-linked genetic variation was present.

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Zusammenfassung Für eine Anzahl verschiedener Borstenzahl-Charaktere (abdominales, sternopleurales, 2. und 3. coxales Segment) wurde die phänotypische Varianz unter Verwendung hierarchischer und dialleler Versuchsanlagen unterteilt. Anhand von Elter-Nachkommen-Regressionen und-Korrelationen und von Halbgeschwister-Korrelationen wurden Heritabilitäten und genetische Korrelation geschätzt.Ein hoher Anteil der genetischen Varianz für die Zahl abdominaler Borsten wurde durch epistatische Effekte und die Wirkung geschlechtsgekoppelter Gene bedingt. Bei den anderen Charakteren war der größte Anteil der genetischen Varianz additiv autosomal.Die genetische Korrelation zwischen der Zahl der Borsten sternopleural und 2. und 3. Segment coxal war durchweg hoch, zwischen abdominal und sternopleural niedrig und zwischen abdominal und sowohl 2. und 3. coxal praktisch gleich null.Ein bemerkenswerter Anteil der Covarianz zwischen der Zahl abdominaler und sternopleuraler Borsten war nicht-additiv genetisch.Die Diallel-Methode ergab zuverlässigere Schätzungen der genetischen Parameter, wenn nicht-additive oder geschlechtsgebundene genetische Variation vorlag.