A molecular epidemiological study of var gene diversity to characterize the reservoir of Plasmodium falciparum in humans in Africa

Background

The reservoir of Plasmodium infection in humans has traditionally been defined by blood slide positivity. This study was designed to characterize the local reservoir of infection in relation to the diverse var genes that encode the major surface antigen of Plasmodium falciparum blood stages and underlie the parasite''s ability to establish chronic infection and transmit from human to mosquito.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We investigated the molecular epidemiology of the var multigene family at local sites in Gabon, Senegal and Kenya which differ in parasite prevalence and transmission intensity. 1839 distinct var gene types were defined by sequencing DBLα domains in the three sites. Only 76 (4.1%) var types were found in more than one population indicating spatial heterogeneity in var types across the African continent. The majority of var types appeared only once in the population sample. Non-parametric statistical estimators predict in each population at minimum five to seven thousand distinct var types. Similar diversity of var types was seen in sites with different parasite prevalences.

Conclusions/Significance

Var population genomics provides new insights into the epidemiology of P. falciparum in Africa where malaria has never been conquered. In particular, we have described the extensive reservoir of infection in local African sites and discovered a unique var population structure that can facilitate superinfection through minimal overlap in var repertoires among parasite genomes. Our findings show that var typing as a molecular surveillance system defines the extent of genetic complexity in the reservoir of infection to complement measures of malaria prevalence. The observed small scale spatial diversity of var genes suggests that var genetics could greatly inform current malaria mapping approaches and predict complex malaria population dynamics due to the import of var types to areas where no widespread pre-existing immunity in the population exists.     

Biological samples taken from Native American Ancestors are human remains under NAGPRA

In the United States, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) provides a specific framework for the disposition of Native American Ancestral remains within its purview. However, samples such as a bone fragment, tooth, or other biological tissue taken from the remains of these Ancestors have been treated by institutions and researchers as independent of the individual from whom they were removed and used in destructive research such as paleogenomic and other archaeometric analyses without consultation, consent, and collaboration from Native American communities; are not cared for in keeping with the current best practices for Indigenous Ancestors; and are not likely to be repatriated to their communities. Here, we demonstrate that any biological samples removed from Ancestors who are covered under NAGPRA must also be handled according to the stipulations defined for “human remains” within the legislation. As such, we are not proposing a change to existing legislation, but rather best practices, specific to the context of the United States and NAGPRA, relating to the use of and care for biological samples taken from Native American Ancestors.     

Asymmetric reproductive character displacement in male aggregation behaviour

Reproductive character displacement--the evolution of traits that minimize reproductive interactions between species--can promote striking divergence in male signals or female mate preferences between populations that do and do not occur with heterospecifics. However, reproductive character displacement can affect other aspects of mating behaviour. Indeed, avoidance of heterospecific interactions might contribute to spatial (or temporal) aggregation of conspecifics. We examined this possibility in two species of hybridizing spadefoot toad (genus Spea). We found that in Spea bombifrons sympatric males were more likely than allopatric males to associate with calling males. Moreover, contrary to allopatric males, sympatric S. bombifrons males preferentially associated with conspecific male calls. By contrast, Spea multiplicata showed no differences between sympatry and allopatry in likelihood to associate with calling males. Further, sympatric and allopatric males did not differ in preference for conspecifics. However, allopatric S. multiplicata were more variable than sympatric males in their responses. Thus, in S. multiplicata, character displacement may have refined pre-existing aggregation behaviour. Our results suggest that heterospecific interactions can foster aggregative behaviour that might ultimately contribute to clustering of conspecifics. Such clustering can generate spatial or temporal segregation of reproductive activities among species and ultimately promote reproductive isolation.     

Mn2+ reduces Yz + in manganese-depleted Photosystem II preparations

Manganese in the oxygen-evolving complex is a physiological electron donor to Photosystem II. PS II depleted of manganese may oxidize exogenous reductants including benzidine and Mn²⁺. Using flash photolysis with electron spin resonance detection, we examined the room-temperature reaction kinetics of these reductants with Y_z ⁺, the tyrosine radical formed in PS II membranes under illumination. Kinetics were measured with membranes that did or did not contain the 33 kDa extrinsic polypeptide of PS II, whose presence had no effect on the reaction kinetics with either reductant. The rate of Y_z ⁺ reduction by benzidine was a linear function of benzidine concentration. The rate of Y_z ⁺ reduction by Mn²⁺ at pH 6 increased linearly at low Mn²⁺ concentrations and reached a maximum at the Mn²⁺ concentrations equal to several times the reaction center concentration. The rate was inhibited by K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺. These data are described by a model in which negative charge on the membrane causes a local increase in the cation concentration. The rate of Y_z ⁺ reduction at pH 7.5 was biphasic with a fast 400 s phase that suggests binding of Mn²⁺ near Y_z ⁺ at a site that may be one of the native manganese binding sites.Abbreviations PS II Photosystem II - Y_D tyrosine residue in Photosystem II that gives rise to the stable Signal II EPR spectrum - Y_z tyrosine residue in Photosystem II that mediates electron transfer between the reaction center chlorophyll and the site of water oxidation - ESR electron spin resonance - DPC diphenylcarbazide - DCIP dichlorophenolindophenol     

Variation in Composition of Yeast Phosphohexosans

Omitting of KH(2)PO(4) from culture media leads to the production of altered phosphohexosans or neutral extracellular mannans by yeasts that otherwise elaborate phosphogalactans and phosphomannans.     

Ecological analyses to inform management targets for the culling of crown-of-thorns starfish to prevent coral decline

The crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS), Acanthaster cf. solaris, is one of the main contributors to declines in coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) and remains one of the major acute disturbances on coral reefs throughout much of the Indo-Pacific. Extensive control programs on the GBR involve manual culling of COTS in the field, and research is needed to inform these management efforts. Data from the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority’s (GBRMPA) COTS control program provide near-real-time CPUE (Catch-Per-Unit-Effort, COTS culled per minute) data ideal for operational decision-making but these must be converted to density estimates before they can be related to ecological status of reefs or incorporated into ecological models. We developed conversions between common COTS field survey methods (i.e. manta tow, SCUBA transect searches) and COTS control program CPUE data using estimates of sightability and detectability. We used a population model and COTS size-structure data from COTS control program culling efforts to estimate that, on average, only 19% of 1-yr-old COTS (1–15 cm) are available to be culled. Finally, we developed a CPUE-COTS density relationship to estimate the threshold levels of COTS that prevent net growth of hard corals. Culling programs should therefore aim to achieve CPUEs below these ecological thresholds in order to effectively promote coral growth and recovery. These ecologically sustainable thresholds of COTS density varied depending on hard coral cover. For example, for 35% fast-growing coral cover, COTS culling needs to continue until CPUE decreases to below 0.05 COTS/min (1 COTS per 20 min) in order to prevent coral decline, whereas if coral cover is higher (80%), then a higher target threshold CPUE of ca. 0.08 COTS/min (ca. 3 COTS per 40 min) may be ecologically sustainable. These estimates underpin the current pest management rules being implemented by the GBRMPA in its COTS control program.

     

Vibrational spectroscopy of the oxygen-evolving complex and of manganese model compounds

A number of molecularly specific models for the oxygen-evolving complex in photosystem II (PSII) and of manganese-substrate water intermediates that may occur in this process have been proposed recently. We summarize this work briefly. Fourier transform infrared techniques have emerged as fruitful tools to study the molecular structures of Y(Z) and the manganese complex. We discuss recent work in which mid-IR (1000-2000 cm(-1)) methods have been used in this effort. The low-frequency IR region (<1000 cm(-1)) has been more difficult to access for technical reasons, but good progress has been made in overcoming these obstacles. We update recent low-frequency work on PSII and then present a detailed summary of relevant manganese model compounds that will be of importance in understanding the emerging biological data.