Influence of intertree distance on foraging behaviour of Rhagoletis pomonella in the field

Abstract. 1. We tested a prediction from contemporary foraging theory that animals should decrease their allocation of energy to the searching of individual patches when interpatch travel costs decrease.
2. We used individual Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh (Diptera: Tephritidae) females foraging for oviposition sites (= Crataegus fruit) in a host tree which was surrounded by four other trees at varying distances.
3. We found that flies generally invested less search, measured as time spent searching a tree or number of leaves visited on a tree, when neighbouring trees were nearby than when farther away.
4. Under our test conditions, flies appeared to have difficulty locating neighbouring trees at a distance of more than 1.6 m.
5. Our study calls into question the interpretation of search effort by insects within resource patches in the absence of information on interpatch distances.     

Dynamic information and host acceptance by a tephritid fruit fly

Abstract. 1. Female apple maggot (Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh) flies held in field cages usually oviposited in an unparasitized (non-pheromone marked) fruit when it was encountered.
2. Oviposition in a previously parasitized (pheromone marked) fruit depended upon the time since the last oviposition (TSLO) and the percentage of infested fruit encountered during search for oviposition sites.
3. Previous theories of host acceptance suggest that the acceptance or rejection of a host should depend dichotomously on time since last oviposition and the fraction of marked hosts in the last five encounters. The experiments, however, show considerable variability and are thus not consistent with the theory.
4. A new theory for the experiments is introduced. This model involves physiological (egg complement) and informational state variables and leads to intuitive understanding of the experimental results. In particular, the model shows how the plasticity in oviposition site selection may arise from fitness maximizing behaviour. Alternative models are also discussed. All of the models stress the importance of physiological and informational states.     

COMPARATIVE SPERMATOLOGY OF FOUR SYMPATRIC SPECIES OF SIPHONARIA (PULMONATA: BASOMMATOPHORA)

The fine structure of the modified sperm and spermatogenesisof four sympatric species of Siphonaria is described. The morphologyof the sperm of all species is very similar. The head, whichis about 6 µm long, is composed of a nucleus with fibrouschromatin capped by an acrosome (about 1 µm long) comprisedof an acrosomal pedestal and apical vesicle. The midpiece hasa mitochondrial derivative which surrounds a single glycogenhelix, posterior to which is a glycogen piece. Although differencesbetween each species exist, the value of sperm morphology forpurposes of taxonomy in this genus is questioned. Comparisonwith other basommatophorans however suggests that sperm morphologymay be of value at a higher taxo-nomic level. The morphologicalchanges that occur during spermatogenesis are similar to thosedescribed for other molluscs with modified sperm, except thatduring early spermiogenesis the Golgi body and smooth endoplasmicreticulum become highly developed. This proliferation of theSER and Golgi occurs at the same time as elongation of the spermatid.Throughout spermatogenesis, the germ cells are closely associatedwith a somatic cell which, because of structural similaritieswith the somatic cell of mammalian seminiferous epithelium,has been termed a Sertoli cell. After the spermatids have beenreleased from the Sertoli cells of the testis, maturation continuesin the hermaphrodite duct where the acrosome reaches its finalsize and glycogen accumulates in the glycogen compartment ofthe mid-piece. (Received 25 April 1990; accepted 1 September 1990)     

Possible aversion learning in the Pacific Coast wireworm

The effects of carbon dioxide and the induction of morbidity on aversion learning in larvae of the Pacific Coast wireworm Limonius canus LeConte (Coleoptera: Elateridae) are discussed. Wireworms preconditioned by exposing them one or four times to odour of Tefluthrin 20SC and Dividend XLRTA [Syngenta Crop Protection (Canada), Inc., Canada] during the induction of temporary morbidity subsequently contact tefluthrin‐treated wheat seeds in soil bioassays for as long as naïve (i.e. not preconditioned) larvae but are repelled four to five‐fold more frequently by Dividend‐treated seeds in soil bioassays than naïve wireworms, suggesting that wireworms are capable of associating a novel odour (i.e. Dividend) with morbidity but require a minimum of 10–15 min subsequent contact time with treated seeds before being repelled. Wireworms preconditioned by exposure to peppermint odour during the induction of morbidity are not subsequently repelled by peppermint odour in soil bioassays, suggesting that wireworms are either not capable of aversion learning or that the presence of a CO₂ source and/or a suitable host plant may override a negative cue (i.e. peppermint odour). In studies conducted in the absence of soil, a host plant and CO₂ production, wireworms are repelled slightly by droplets of 1.0% but not 0.1% peppermint oil. Previous exposure to peppermint odour or contact with peppermint oil‐treated filter paper during one induction of morbidity does not increase the repellency of wireworms to 1.0% peppermint oil significantly. Repellency to 1.0% peppermint oil is almost eliminated when morbidity is induced five times in the absence of peppermint odour but is restored when peppermint odour is present during preconditioning. These findings suggest that wireworm sensitivity to repellent compounds decreases when repeatedly made moribund, although the results are not sufficient to conclude that wireworms are capable of associative learning.     

Differences in nitrogen metabolism of Faidherbia albida and other N2-fixing tropical woody acacias reflect habitat water availability

The activities of nitrate reductase and glutamine synthetase were evaluated in young plants of Faidherbia albida , a tropical woody legume, fed with different N sources under hydroponic conditions. Results showed that assimilation of both NO₃⁻ and NH₄⁺ preferentially took place in shoots. A basal amount of nitrate reductase activity was detected in shoots of plants grown with an NO₃⁻-free solution or placed under N₂-fixing conditions, and also in nodules of N₂-fixing plants. This strongly suggests that constitutive nitrate reductase activity is present in these organs. Analyses of the soluble nitrogenous content showed that the major form of N in the different organs was α-amino acids (particularly amides), irrespective of the N status of the culture conditions. The same result was obtained for nodulated plants grown in local sandy soil. In this case, amide-N generally accounted for more than 40% of the total soluble N. This was especially true in nodules. Ureide-N never exceeded 9% of the total soluble N and did not appear to increase with increasing nodule nitrogenase activity. Amides were also predominant in three N₂-fixing Sahelian acacias ( Acacia seyal , A. nilotica and A. tortilis ), showing that F. albida does not differ from Sahelian Acacia in terms of the metabolism of fixed N. However, like another Sahelian acacia growing preferentially near water ( A. nilotica ), F. albida can be distinguished from acacias growing strictly in arid zones ( A. seyal and A. tortilis ) in terms of initial growth, water and nitrate management.     

Emergent effects of ground beetles size diversity on the strength of prey suppression

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A molecular phylogeny for the pyraloid moths (Lepidoptera: Pyraloidea) and its implications for higher‐level classification

Pyraloidea, one of the largest superfamilies of Lepidoptera, comprise more than 15 684 described species worldwide, including important pests, biological control agents and experimental models. Understanding of pyraloid phylogeny, the basis for a predictive classification, is currently provisional. We present the most detailed molecular estimate of relationships to date across the subfamilies of Pyraloidea, and assess its concordance with previous morphology‐based hypotheses. We sequenced up to five nuclear genes, totalling 6633 bp, in each of 42 pyraloids spanning both families and 18 of the 21 subfamilies, plus up to 14 additional genes, for a total of 14 826 bp, in 21 of those pyraloids plus all 24 outgroups. Maximum likelihood analyses yield trees that, within Pyraloidea, differ little among datasets and character treatments and are strongly supported at all levels of divergence (83% of nodes with bootstrap ≥80%). Subfamily relationships within Pyralidae, all very strongly supported (>90% bootstrap), differ only slightly from a previous morphological analysis, and can be summarized as Galleriinae + Chrysauginae (Phycitinae (Pyralinae + Epipaschiinae)). The main remaining uncertainty involves Chrysauginae, of which the poorly studied Australian genera may constitute the basal elements of Galleriinae + Chrysauginae or even of Pyralidae. In Crambidae the molecular phylogeny is also strongly supported, but conflicts with most previous hypotheses. Among the newly proposed groupings are a ‘wet‐habitat clade’ comprising Acentropinae + Schoenobiinae + Midilinae, and a provisional ‘mustard oil clade’ containing Glaphyriinae, Evergestinae and Noordinae, in which the majority of described larvae feed on Brassicales. Within this clade a previous synonymy of Dichogaminae with the Glaphyriinae is supported. Evergestinae syn. n. and Noordinae syn. n. are here newly synonymized with Glaphyriinae, which appear to be paraphyletic with respect to both. Pyraustinae and Spilomelinae as sampled here are each monophyletic but form a sister group pair. Wurthiinae n. syn. , comprising the single genus Niphopyralis Hampson, which lives in ant nests, are closely related to, apparently subordinate within, and here newly synonymized with, Spilomelinae syn. n.     

State‐dependent attacks in a mosquito

Mosquito biting frequency and meal size are considered to be important parameters in the epidemiology of insect‐vectored diseases such as malaria. Because both parameters are likely to depend on the size and energetic state of adult mosquitoes, the present study investigates the effects of body size and energy state on attack behaviours in the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. Attack rates are measured as well as total time spent before giving up for individual females when provided with an unobtainable human hand (i.e. mosquitoes are dislodged every time that they land). The factorial design considers two body sizes, small and large, as well as three sugar deprivation states, 0, 1 and 2 days. The results reveal a positive effect of size on attack rate and a nonlinear effect of energy state, where mosquitoes of intermediate energy state show lower attack rates than either 2‐day food‐deprived or nondeprived mosquitoes. Moreover, attack rate is negatively associated with persistence time in nondeprived and 2‐day food‐deprived Anopheles but is unrelated to persistence time in 1‐day food‐deprived mosquitoes, Interestingly, although persistence times are generally inversely related to attack rates, they are not significantly influenced by either energetic or size states.     

Translocation Profiles of [11C] and [13N]-Labelled Metabolites after Assimilation of 11CO2 and [13N]-Labelled Ammonia Gas by Leaves of Helianthus annuus L. and Lupinus albus L.

Tracer amounts of atmospheric [¹³N]-Iabelled ammonia gas, wereabsorbed by leaves of Lupinus albus and Helianthus annuus inboth the light and the dark. Exogenous [¹³N]-ammonia was onlyabsorbed in the dark when the feeding occurred shortly aftera period of illumination and the tissue was not depleted ofits carbohydrate reserves (e.g. starch). Incorporation of the[¹³N]-ammonia appeared to occur via the leaf glutamine synthetase/glutamatesynthase (GS/GOGAT) cycle since 2.0 mol m^–3 MSX, an inhibitorof the GS reduced uptake in both the light and dark. Photosyntheticincorporation of ¹¹CO₂ was not affected by this treatment Therate of movement of [¹³N]-assimilates in the petiole of attachedleaves of Helianthus and Lupinus was similar to that of the¹¹Cl-photo assimilates. Export of both [¹³N] and [¹¹C]-Iabelledassimilates from the leaf and movement in the petiole in boththe light and the dark was inhibited by source leaf anoxia (i.e.nitrogen gas). Translocation was re-established at the samerate when the feed leaf was exposed to gas containing more than2% O₂ which permitted dark respiration to proceed. After aninitial feeding of either ¹¹CO₂ or [¹³N]-ammonia at ambient(21%) O₂ exposure of the source leaf to 2% O2, or 50% O² didnot alter the rates of translocation, indicating that changesin photosynthetic activity in the source leaf due to photorespiratoryactivity need not markedly alter, at least during the shortperiod, the loading and translocation of either [¹¹C ] or [¹³N]-labelledleaf products. Key words: Translocation, CO₂, NH₃, Leaves, Helianthus annuus, Lupinus albus     

An Evaluation of EPR Measurements of the Organic Free Radical Content of Individual Seeds in the Non-destructive Testing of Seed Viability

Hepburn, H. A., Goodman, B. A., McPhail, D. B., Matthews, S.and Powell, A. A. 1986. An evaluation of EPR measurements ofthe organic free radical content of individual seeds in thenon-destructive testing of seed viability.—J. exp. Bot.37: 1675–1684. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra of individualintact seeds of a range of legumes and brassicas have been obtainedin order to measure their organic free radical contents. Norelationship was found between free radical content and seedviability or early seedling growth for both legumes and brassicas.The testa had a much greater free radical concentration thaneither the embryo axes or the cotyledons for all cultivars ofseed tested. The general high free radical content of the testasuggests that there is little possibility of EPR being usedto predict the viability of individual seeds. The spectroscopicsplitting factor of g = 2·0045 reported for the intactseeds is consistent with the radicals' arising from melanictype compounds. Key words: Seed viability, free radical content