Induction of serotonin accumulation by feeding of rice striped stem borer in rice leaves

Tryptophan (Trp)-related secondary metabolism has been implicated in the defense against pathogen infection and insect feeding in various gramineous species. Recently, we also reported that rice plant accumulated serotonin and tryptamine as well as their amide compounds coupled with phenolic acids in response to the infection by fungal pathogen. These compounds were likely to play an important role in the formation of physical barrier to the invading pathogens. To extend our study to elucidate the defensive role of Trp-derived secondary metabolism in gramineous plants, we examined in this study whether it is activated in response to herbivore attack as well. Third leaves of rice plant were fed on by third instar larvae of rice striped stem borer for 24 h or 48 h. The analysis of four Trp-derived metabolites including tryptamine, serotonin feruloyltryptamine (FerTry) and p-coumaroylserotonin (CouSer) by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry revealed that their contents clearly increased in response to the larvae feeding. The respective amounts of tryptamine, serotonin, FerTry and CouSer in the larvae-fed leaves were 12-, 3.5-, 33- and 140-fold larger than those in control leaves 48 h after the start of feeding.Key words: rice, Oryza sativa, Gramineae, serotonin, secondary metabolism, rice striped stem borer, Chilo suppressalisPlants defend themselves from environmental stresses by utilizing secondary metabolism. One of major biological stresses that plants have to cope with is attack by herbivorous insects. In the interactions with herbivorous insects, various secondary metabolites that are derived from tryptophan (Trp) pathway have been shown to play defensive roles in plants including gramineous species. For example, benzoxazinone glucosides in wheat (Triticum aestivum), rye (Secale sereale) and maize (Zea mays) express toxic and antifeeding effects on herbivorous insects.^1,2 Benzoxazinones are biosynthesized from indole-3-glycerol phosphate, an intermediate of Trp synthesis.^3,4 Another example of those compounds is gramine in barley (Hordeum vulgare). Gramine is a Trp-rerived indole amine,⁵ and has been received attention in the resistance mainly against aphids on the basis of its toxicity and deterrence.⁶We recently found that Trp-derived secondary metabolism is also involved in defense responses of rice (Oryza sativa) leaves to infection by brown spot fungus (Bipolaris oryzae).⁷ The infection of the fungus activates Trp biosynthesis and accumulation of serotonin and of smaller amounts of tryptamine, feruloyltryptamine (FerTry) and p-coumaroylserotonin (CouSer). In addition, the enhancement of serotonin peroxidase activity and incorporation of serotonin in the cell walls were detected. Thus, it is very likely that that serotonin-derived materials deposit in cell walls after oxidative polymerization to constitute a part of physical defense system of rice, which may be reminiscent of the wound sloughing in animals. These findings prompted us to investigate whether Trp-related secondary metabolism is also involved in the defense of rice plant against the attack by insects, as in the cases of other gramineous plants mentioned above. While the response of plants to pathogenic infection is generally different from that to insect herbivory, Trp-derived secondary metabolites have occasionally been implicated in both responses.^8–10 Here, we report the results of our study to examine the effects of herbivory by rice striped stem borer (Chilo suppressalis) on the Trp derived secondary metabolism in rice leaves.Rice (cv. Nipponbare) leaves were incubated with larvae of C. suppressalis in a feeding tube assembled according to Oikawa et al.,⁸ Aerial parts of two 12-day-old rice seedlings were excised, and their cutting ends were immersed in distilled water in a vial. Three third instar larvae of C. suppressalis were put on the leaves, and the leaves with larvae were covered by a plastic tube. For comparison, the control leaves were wounded by razor blade at the start of the incubation. After incubation for 24 h or 48 h with 16/8 h LD cycle at 28°C, the leaves were extracted with 10 volumes of 80% methanol, and analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry in multiple reaction monitoring mode.As shown in Figure 1, the contents of tryptamine and serotonin increased along with time in the larvae-fed leaves. The respective contents of tryptamine and serotonin in the leaves were 12- and 3.5-fold larger than those in control leaves 48 h after the start of feeding. The accumulation of FerTry and CouSer was also observed after larvae feeding with the contents being 33- and 140-fold larger than those in control leaves, respectively. Their contents, however, were approximately 10-fold smaller than the corresponding amines.Open in a separate windowFigure 1Accumulation of Trp derived metabolites in the leaves attacked by rice striped stem borer. Chemical structures of analyzed compounds (A). The contents of tryptamine (B), serotonin (B), FerTry (C) and CouSer (D) were determined by LC-MS/MS analysis. The third leaves of 12-d-old rice seedlings were fed on by rice striped stem borer (brack bars) or wounded by razor blade as control (white bars). After incubation, the leaves were extracted by 80% methanol. The contents of metabolites at time 0 are represented as gray bars.In the interaction of rice plant with B. oryzae, serotonin was shown to be incorporated into cell walls as a part of physical defense system.⁷ In an analogous way, modification of cell walls by serotonin might function in sealing the sites injured by insect feeding to protect the leaves from desiccation, and opportunistic and insect-mediated infection by microorganisms. Indeed, at the cutting edge of the leaves, the formation of brown materials was observed. In addition, since serotonin is a neurotransmitter of insects and tryptamine has been indicated to be a neuroactive substance, their accumulation might directly affect behavior and physiology of some insects. High concentrations of tryptamine have been shown to express anti-oviposition activity toward Bemisia tabaci¹¹ and anti-feeding activities toward Malacosoma disstria and Manduca sexta.¹²The low levels of serotonin, tryptamine and their amides in the control leaves suggest that these compounds are induced in response to some components produced during the interaction between the plant and the herbivore. In this relation, it has been shown that elicitors are present in the saliva of some herbivous insects, which induce volatile emission from the plant to attracts their natural enemies.^13,14 Induction of Trp-derived secondary metabolites by the herbivore attack may likely be a result of recognition of some insect-derived molecules by rice leaves, similarly to the induction of volatile emission.The induced accumulation of indole amines and their hydroxycinnamic acid amides in the rice leaves attacked by C. suppressalis suggests that a common signaling pathway might be involved in the responses to pathogen infection and insect feeding. However, the composition of induced compounds was different between the responses to the two biological stresses. The content of tryptamine in the larvae-fed leaves was comparable to that reported in the B. oryzae-infected leaves, whereas the amount of serotonin (approximately 35 nmol/gFW) was much smaller than that in the infected leaves (approximately 250 nmol/gFW). This characteristic was similar to the response of rice leaves to methyl jasmonate (MeJA), which also induced accumulation of these Trp-derived secondary metabolites.⁷ The strong activation of the conversion of tryptamine to serotonin may require infection-specific signals.The serotonin accumulation in rice appears to be similar to the accumulation of gramine in barley in several aspects. Gramine accumulation has been demonstrated to be induced by either infection by pathogens⁹ or infestation by the aphid Schizaphis graminum.¹⁰ In addition, the gene encoding N-methyltransferase that catalyzes the final reaction in the gramine biosynthetic pathway is upregulated by MeJA, suggesting gramine synthesis is at least partly under the control of jasmonate signaling pathway.^15,16 The inducible serotonin production may be an archetypal form of the biosynthesis of more complicated indole amine in barley.     

森林草地转换对景观视觉效果的影响

基于景观保护的视点,定量研究了森林草地转换对景观视觉效果的影响．结果表明,中景域的可视区域比近景域和远景域大,草地建设对中景域景观视觉效果的影响也最大,因此,中景域是重要的景观保护对象．对草地内林地的可视量分析可知,各景域的可视林地多分布在400～600m高海拔上。25°以上的坡度范围内分布偏少．并探讨了草地建成后应采取的景观管理和保护对策,以增加草地景观的视觉效果．     

Effect of Carotenoid Depletion on the Hatching Rhythm of the Silkworm, Bombyx mori

To investigate the functional involvement of carotenoid in the insect circadian rhythm, we observed the effect of carotenoid depletion on the hatching patterns of the silkworm under several light conditions. When eggs were transferred from continuous light (LL) to continuous darkness (DD), an overt hatching rhythm was initiated. The first hatching peak, which was observed at 13.2 h after the transfer in the carotenoid-depleted silkworm, was reduced remarkably in both control groups (carotenoid-rich and carotenoid-depleted but with lutein supplementation), though subsequent peaks occurred with similar timing. Under LD 4 : 20, LD 12 : 12 and LD 20 :4, hatching patterns depended on the dietary carotenoid and the light intensity of the photophase. At a low light intensity, carotenoid depletion suppressed hatching as a masking effect just after light-on. Under LD 4 : 20 at a low light illumination, hatchings in the carotenoid-depleted silkworm were observed during scotophase, but few larvae hatched during scotophase in the control groups. Our findings suggest that carotenoid is not indispensable for the photoreception, formation and entrainment of the circadian hatching rhythm, but that a carotenoid-dependent process that is induced by light-off and damps out in an hour-glass mode, suppresses the hatching during darkness without affecting the circadian oscillation. The possibility that this carotenoid-dependent process is involved in the photoperiodic induction in the silkworm was discussed.     

Genetic basis of ovicidal response to whitebacked planthopper (Sogatella furcifera Horváth) in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) ovicidal response to the whitebacked planthopper (Sogatella furcifera Horváth) is characterized by formation of watery lesions and production of an ovicidal substance benzyl benzoate, which results in high egg mortality of whitebacked planthopper. A gene with ovicidal activity to whitebacked planthopper, designated Ovc, and four ovicidal quantitative trait loci (QTLs), qOVA-1-3, qOVA-4, qOVA-5-1 and qOVA-5-2 were identified using near isogenic lines with reciprocal genetic backgrounds of a non-ovicidal Indica variety IR24 and an ovicidal Japonica variety Asominori. Ovc and the four QTLs were mapped on chromosomes 6, 1, 4, 5 and 5, respectively. Ovc is the first gene identified that kills insect eggs in plants. The Asominori allele at Ovc was essential for increasing egg mortality and responsible for production of benzyl benzoate and formation of watery lesions. The Asominori alleles at qOVA-1-3, qOVA-5-1 and qOVA-5-2 increased egg mortality in the presence of Ovc. In contrast, the Asominori allele at qOVA-4 suppressed egg mortality, indicating that qOVA-4 caused transgressive segregation for egg mortality. It was concluded that Ovc and four ovicidal QTLs accounted for the majority of the phenotypic variance for the ovicidal response to whitebacked planthopper in Asominori.     

Primary Conformation Change in Bacteriorhodopsin on Photoexcitation

Ultrafast dynamics of bacteriorhodopsin (bR) has been extensively studied experimentally and theoretically. However, there are several contradictory results reported, indicating that its detailed dynamics and initial process have not yet been fully clarified. In this work, changes in the amplitude and phase of molecular vibration in the isomerization process of bR were real-time probed simultaneously at 128 different wavelengths through intensity modulation of the electronic transition. Systematic information on the transient change in continuous spectrum extending from 505 nm (2.45 eV) to 675 nm (1.84 eV) showed different dynamics in each spectral region reflecting the difference in the excited states and intermediates dominating the dynamics during the photoisomerization. Careful analysis of the transient spectral changes and spectrograms calculated from the vibrational real-time traces elucidated that the primary event just after photoexcitation is the deformation of the retinal configuration, which decays within 30 fs near the C=N bond in the protonated Schiff base. The intensity of C=N stretching mode starts to decrease before the initiation of the frequency modulation of the C=C stretching mode. The C=C stretching mode frequency was modulated by a coupled torsion around the C₁₃=C₁₄ bond, leading to the photoisomerization around the bond. This study clarified the dynamics of the C=N and C=C stretching modes working as key vibration modes in the photoisomerization of bR. Furthermore, we have elucidated the modulation and decay dynamics of the C=C stretching mode in the photoreaction starting from H (Franck-Condon excited state) followed by I (twisted excited), and J (first intermediate) states.     

Synthesis and absolute structures of Mycoplasma pneumoniae β-glyceroglycolipid antigens

Just recently, a pair of β-glycolipids was isolated from the cell membrane of Mycoplasma pneumoniae as a mixture of the two compounds. They are the major immunodeterminants of this pathogenic Mycoplasma and indicate high medicinal potential. They have a β-(1→6)-linked disaccharide structure close to each other; one has β-d-galactopyranoside (β-Gal-type 1) at the non-reducing terminal, and another has β-d-glucopyranoside (β-Glc-type 2). In the present study, the first stereoselective synthesis was conducted for each of the two β-glycolipids 1 and 2. ¹H NMR and TLC-immunostaining studies of the synthetic compounds enable us to establish the absolute structures having the β-(1→6)-linked disaccharides at the glycerol sn-3 position.