Natural variation in MAM within and between populations of Arabidopsis lyrata determines glucosinolate phenotype

The genetic variation that underlies the glucosinolate phenotype of Arabidopsis lyrata ssp. petraea was investigated between and within populations. A candidate glucosinolate biosynthetic locus (MAM, containing methylthioalkylmalate synthase genes) was mapped in A. lyrata to a location on linkage group 6 corresponding to the homologous location for MAM in A. thaliana. In A. thaliana MAM is responsible for side chain elongation in aliphatic glucosinolates, and the MAM phenotype can be characterized by the ratios of long- to short-chain glucosinolates. A quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis of glucosinolate ratios in an A. lyrata interpopulation cross found one QTL at MAM. Additional QTL were identified for total indolic glucosinolates and for the ratio of aliphatic to indolic glucosinolates. MAM was then used as the candidate gene for a within-population cosegregation analysis in a natural A. lyrata population from Germany. Extensive variation in microsatellite markers at MAM was found and this variation cosegregated with the same glucosinolate ratios as in the QTL study. The combined results indicate that both between- and within-population genetic variation in the MAM region determines phenotypic variation in glucosinolate side chains in A. lyrata.     

Neutral theory, phylogenies, and the relationship between phenotypic change and evolutionary rates

The neutral theory of molecular evolution predicts that rates of phenotypic change are largely independent from genotypic change. A recent study by Bromham et al. (2002) confirmed this expectation, finding no evidence for correlated phenotypic and molecular evolutionary rates in animals. We reevaluate this hypothesis, sampling at different taxonomic levels in plants and animals, using Bayesian inference to reconstruct phylogenetic trees and estimate rates of molecular evolution. We use independent contrasts in branch lengths to maximize the information extracted from each of the trees and nodal posterior probabilities to assess the influence of phylogenetic error. Our results indicate that in vascular plants between 2% and 11% of the variation in phenotypic rates of change can be explained by the rate of genotypic change. These results may be explained by the idea that processes that affect general evolutionary rates, such as body size, may also be expected to influence rates of morphological change.     

Oligocene CO2 decline promoted C4 photosynthesis in grasses

C4 photosynthesis is an adaptation derived from the more common C3 photosynthetic pathway that confers a higher productivity under warm temperature and low atmospheric CO2 concentration [1, 2]. C4 evolution has been seen as a consequence of past atmospheric CO2 decline, such as the abrupt CO2 fall 32-25 million years ago (Mya) [3-6]. This relationship has never been tested rigorously, mainly because of a lack of accurate estimates of divergence times for the different C4 lineages [3]. In this study, we inferred a large phylogenetic tree for the grass family and estimated, through Bayesian molecular dating, the ages of the 17 to 18 independent grass C4 lineages. The first transition from C3 to C4 photosynthesis occurred in the Chloridoideae subfamily, 32.0-25.0 Mya. The link between CO2 decrease and transition to C4 photosynthesis was tested by a novel maximum likelihood approach. We showed that the model incorporating the atmospheric CO2 levels was significantly better than the null model, supporting the importance of CO2 decline on C4 photosynthesis evolvability. This finding is relevant for understanding the origin of C4 photosynthesis in grasses, which is one of the most successful ecological and evolutionary innovations in plant history.     

Phylogeny, biogeography, and ecology of Ficus section Malvanthera (Moraceae)

We conducted the first molecular phylogenetic study of Ficus section Malvanthera (Moraceae; subgenus Urostigma) based on 32 Malvanthera accessions and seven outgroups representing other sections of Ficus subgenus Urostigma. We used DNA sequences from the nuclear ribosomal internal and external transcribed spacers (ITS and ETS), and the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3pdh) region. Phylogenetic analysis using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods recovered a monophyletic section Malvanthera to the exclusion of the rubber fig, Ficus elastica. The results of the phylogenetic analyses do not conform to any previously proposed taxonomic subdivision of the section and characters used for previous classification are homoplasious. Geographic distribution, however, is highly conserved and Melanesian Malvanthera are monophyletic. A new subdivision of section Malvanthera reflecting phylogenetic relationships is presented. Section Malvanthera likely diversified during a period of isolation in Australia and subsequently colonized New Guinea. Two Australian series are consistent with a pattern of dispersal out of rainforest habitat into drier habitats accompanied by a reduction in plant height during the transition from hemi-epiphytic trees to lithophytic trees and shrubs. In contradiction with a previous study of Pleistodontes phylogeny suggesting multiple changes in pollination behaviour, reconstruction of changes in pollination behaviour on Malvanthera, suggests only one or a few gains of active pollination within the section.     

Isolation and culture of myofibroblasts from rat liver

Successful isolation and culture of myofibroblasts from rat liver is described for the first time. After collagenase digestion of livers, obtained from rats fed regular laboratory chow diet as well as control and vitamin A-supplemented liquid diets, cells were separated on a Percoll density gradient. Cells characterized as myofibroblasts by electron microscopy were cultured in a Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium. Characteristic features of myofibroblasts (abundant myofibrils) with dense bodies, indented nucleus, basal lamina-like structure, capacity to synthesize types I, III, and IV collagens and laminin were demonstrated in both primary and secondary cultures.     

Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) in Finland: Technological and physical prospects after 20 years of experiences

Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) is a binary radiotherapy method developed to treat patients with certain malignant tumours. To date, over 300 treatments have been carried out at the Finnish BNCT facility in various on-going and past clinical trials. In this technical review, we discuss our research work in the field of medical physics to form the groundwork for the Finnish BNCT patient treatments, as well as the possibilities to further develop and optimize the method in the future. Accordingly, the following aspects are described: neutron sources, beam dosimetry, treatment planning, boron imaging and determination, and finally the possibilities to detect the efficacy and effects of BNCT on patients.     

Convergent evolution of floral signals underlies the success of Neotropical orchids

The great majority of plant species in the tropics require animals to achieve pollination, but the exact role of floral signals in attraction of animal pollinators is often debated. Many plants provide a floral reward to attract a guild of pollinators, and it has been proposed that floral signals of non-rewarding species may converge on those of rewarding species to exploit the relationship of the latter with their pollinators. In the orchid family (Orchidaceae), pollination is almost universally animal-mediated, but a third of species provide no floral reward, which suggests that deceptive pollination mechanisms are prevalent. Here, we examine floral colour and shape convergence in Neotropical plant communities, focusing on certain food-deceptive Oncidiinae orchids (e.g. Trichocentrum ascendens and Oncidium nebulosum) and rewarding species of Malpighiaceae. We show that the species from these two distantly related families are often more similar in floral colour and shape than expected by chance and propose that a system of multifarious floral mimicry—a form of Batesian mimicry that involves multiple models and is more complex than a simple one model–one mimic system—operates in these orchids. The same mimetic pollination system has evolved at least 14 times within the species-rich Oncidiinae throughout the Neotropics. These results help explain the extraordinary diversification of Neotropical orchids and highlight the complexity of plant–animal interactions.