Codon swapping as a possible evolutionary mechanism

Summary It is apparent in the genetic code that amino acids of similar chemical nature have similar codons. I show how through successive codon captures (multiple rounds of Osawa-Jukes type reassignments), complete codon swappings in an unfavorable genetic code are evolutionarily feasible. This mechanisms could have complemented the ambiguity reduction and the vocabulary extension processes of codon-amino acid assignments. Evolution of wobble rules is implied. Transfer RNA molecules and synthetases may still carry memories of it.     

Nano- and picoplankton growth and production in the Bay of Villefranche sur Mer (N.W. Mediterranean)

Plankton production in the Bay of Villefranche was relatively constant during March and April 1986 but the particle size at which the production occurred was more variable. At the beginning of the study, production was dominated by the larger (ca. 6 m) flagellates but towards the end it was more or less equally divided between the nano- and picoplankton. There were considerable differences in the estimates of population growth rates, depending on the methods used, but on average the population doubling times were close to 12 hours for autotrophs and 24 hours for heterotrophs. As autotrophs do not grow during the night, each population was therefore doubling once per day. It seemed that each of the nanoor picoplankton populations could adversely affect the growth of the others. This could be either by simple predation or by some form of inhibition. Although nutrient levels in the bay were uniformly low, the addition of nutrients did not always stimulate algal growth. The plankton populations seemed to be both in a state of equilibrium and intense ecological competition.     

Queen polymorphism in the North American harvester ant,Ephebomyrmex imberbiculus

Summary In the North American harvester antEphebomyrmex imberbiculus, in addition to dealate queens, wingless female reproductives occur that have greatly reduced ocelli and thoracic sutures (intermorphic queens). Both queen types are equivalent in function, and do not differ in ovarian morphology. Colonies may contain several inseminated and egg-laying intermorphic queens. We discuss queen polymorphism in respect to the biology of this desert-dwelling species.     

Antifungal activity of chitin-binding PR-4 type proteins from barley grain and stressed leaf.

Antifungal activity in vitro has been associated with barley leaf and grain proteins which are homologous with pathogenesis related proteins of type 4 (PR-4) from tobacco and tomato and with C terminal domains of potato win and Hevea hevein precursor proteins. One protein (pI approximately 9.3, M(r) approximately 13.7 kDa) from barley grain and two very similar proteins from leaves infected with Erysiphe graminis were isolated by chitin affinity chromatography, but none of the proteins showed chitinase activity in vitro. The leaf proteins were increased several fold in response to either Erysiphe infection or NiCl2 infiltration and accumulated extracellularly. The three barley proteins were found to inhibit growth of Trichoderma harzianum in microtiter plate assays using approximately 10 micrograms/ml concentrations and in lower concentrations in a synergistic way when mixed either with barley chitinase C (a PR-3 type protein) or with barley protein R (a PR-5 type protein). Structurally similar proteins were detected in wheat, rye and oats grain extracts.     

Mechanism and stereochemistry in the sequential enzymatic saturation of the two double bonds in cholesta-4,6-dien-3-one.

The mechanism and stereochemistry in connection with enzymatic conversion of cholesta-4,6-dien-3-one into cholestanol was studied. Rat and mouse liver microsomes are able to catalyze NADPH-dependent sequential saturation of the two double bonds. Evidence was obtained that the saturation of the delta 6-double bond includes transfer of a hydride ion from the B-side of the cofactor to the 7-position of the steroid (mainly 7 beta-position), followed by addition of a proton to the 6 alpha-position (mainly trans addition). The saturation of the delta 4-double bond includes transfer of a hydride ion from the B-side of the cofactor to the 5 alpha-position of the steroid followed by addition of a proton to the 4 beta-position (trans addition). The reduction of the 3-oxo group was found to involve transfer of a hydride ion from the B-side of the cofactor NADPH to the 3 alpha-position of the steroid. The results are in accord with the contention that the enzymatic saturation of the two double bonds involves a polarization of the 3-oxo group making C-7 electrophilic and C-6 nucleophilic in connection with the saturation of the delta 6-double bond and C-5 electrophilic and C-4 nucleophilic in connection with the saturation of the delta 4-double bond.     

Protein LG: a hybrid molecule with unique immunoglobulin binding properties.

Immunoglobulin (Ig)-binding bacterial proteins have attracted theoretical interest for their role in molecular host-parasite interactions, and they are widely used as tools in immunology, biochemistry, medicine, and biotechnology. Protein L of the anaerobic bacterial species Peptostreptococcus magnus binds Ig light chains, whereas streptococcal protein G has affinity for the constant (Fc) region of IgG. In this report, Ig binding parts of protein L and protein G were combined to form a hybrid molecule, protein LG, which was found to bind a large majority of intact human Igs as well as Fc and Fab fragments, and Ig light chains. Binding to Ig was specific, and the affinity constants of the reactions between protein LG and human IgG, IgGFc fragments, and kappa light chains, determined by Scatchard plots, were 5.9 x 10(9), 2.2 x 10(9), and 2.0 x 10(9) M-1, respectively. The binding properties of protein LG were more complete as compared with previously described Ig-binding proteins when also tested against mouse and rat Igs. This hybrid protein thus represents a powerful tool for the binding, detection, and purification of antibodies and antibody fragments.     

Leaf water relations characteristics of differently potassium fertilized and watered field grown barley plants

Seasonal leaf water relations characteristics were studied in fully irrigated spring barley (Hordeum distichum L. cv. Gunnar) fertilized at low (50 kg K ha⁻¹) or high (200 kg K ha⁻¹) levels of potassium applied as KCl. The investigation was undertaken from about 14 days before anthesis until the milk ripe stage in leaves of different position and age. Additionally, the effects of severe water stress on leaf water relations were studied in the middle of the grain filling period in spring barley (cv. Alis). The leaf water relations characteristics were determined by the pressure volume (PV) technique. Water relations of fully irrigated plants were compared in leaf No 7 with the water relations of slowly droughted plants (cv. Alis). Leaf osmotic potential at full turgor (ψ _π ¹⁰⁰ ) decreased 0.1 to 0.3 MPa in droughted leaves indicating a limited osmotic adjustment due to solute accumulation. The leaf osmotic potential at zero turgor (ψ _π ⁰ ) was about −2.2 MPa in fully irrigated plants and −2.6 MPa in droughted plants. The relative water content at zero turgor (R⁰) decreased 0.1 unit in severely droughted leaves. The ratio of turgid leaf weight to dry weight (TW/DW) tended to be increased by drought. The tissue modulus of elasticity (ε) decreased in droughted plants and together with osmotic adjustment mediated turgor maintenance during drought. A similar response to drought was found in low and high K plants except that the R⁰ and ε values tended to be higher in the high K plants. Conclusively, during drought limited osmotic adjustment and increase in elasticity of the leaf tissue mediated turgor maintenance. These effects were only slightly modified by high potassium application. The seasonal analysis in fully irrigated plants (cv. Gunnar) showed that within about 14 days from leaf emergence ψ _π ¹⁰⁰ decreased from about −0.9 to −1.6 MPa in leaf No 7 (counting the first leaf to emerge as number one) and from about −1.1 to −1.9 MPa in leaf No 8 (the flag leaf) due to solute accumulation. A similar decrease took place in ψ _π ⁰ except that the level of ψ _π ⁰ was displaced to a lower level of about 0.2 to 0.3 MPa. Both ψ _π ¹⁰⁰ and ψ _π ⁰ tended to be 0.05 to 0.10 MPa lower in high K than in low K plants. R⁰ was about 0.8 to 0.9 and was independent of leaf position and age, but tended to be highest in high K plants. The TW/DW ratio decreased from about 5.5 in leaf No 6 to 4.5 in leaf No 7 and 3.8 in leaf No 8. The TW/DW ratio was 4 to 10% higher in high K than in low K plants indicating larger leaf cell size in the former. The apoplastic water content (V_a) at full turgor constituted about 15% in leaf No 7. ε was maximum at full turgor and varied from about 11 to 34 MPa. ε tended to be higher in high K plants. Conclusively, in fully watered plants an ontogenetically determined accumulation of solutes (probably organic as discussed) occurred in the leaves independent of K application. The main effect of high K application on water relations was an increase in leaf water content and a slight decrease in leaf ψ_π. The effect of K status on growth and drought resistance is discussed.     

Repression of the Plastidic Isoenzymes of Aldolase, 3-Phosphoglycerate Kinase, and Triosephosphate Isomerase in the Barley Mutant "albostrians"

White leaves of the mutant line albostrians and green leaves of the wild-type cultivar Salome of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) were screened for the presence of plastidic and cytosolic isoenzymes of sugar-phosphate metabolism. Isoenzyme separation was achieved by anion-exchange chromatography on Fractogel TSK DEAE-650(S). The mutant tissue had a markedly reduced level of plastidic 3-phosphoglycerate kinase, triosephosphate isomerase, and aldolase activity. In contrast, the activity of plastidic glucosephosphate isomerase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, starch phosphorylase, and ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase was in the same range as in wild-type leaf tissue. The activity of the corresponding cytosolic isoenzymes (including UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase) showed essentially no differences in mutant and wild type. The same trend was observed in dark-grown mutant and wild-type leaves. Interestingly, the total activity levels of all isoenzymes were about the same when comparing dark-grown and light-grown mutant or wild-type plants. From these data, it is concluded that mutant leaves exhibit a selective decrease of a subgroup of plastidic isoenzymes associated with the Calvin cycle.