A single-cell polony method reveals low levels of infected Prochlorococcus in oligotrophic waters despite high cyanophage abundances

Long-term stability of picocyanobacteria in the open oceans is maintained by a balance between synchronous division and death on daily timescales. Viruses are considered a major source of microbial mortality, however, current methods to measure infection have significant methodological limitations. Here we describe a method that pairs flow-cytometric sorting with a PCR-based polony technique to simultaneously screen thousands of taxonomically resolved individual cells for intracellular virus DNA, enabling sensitive, high-throughput, and direct quantification of infection by different virus lineages. Under controlled conditions with picocyanobacteria-cyanophage models, the method detected infection throughout the lytic cycle and discriminated between varying infection levels. In North Pacific subtropical surface waters, the method revealed that only a small percentage of Prochlorococcus (0.35–1.6%) were infected, predominantly by T4-like cyanophages, and that infection oscillated 2-fold in phase with the diel cycle. This corresponds to 0.35–4.8% of Prochlorococcus mortality daily. Cyanophages were 2–4-fold more abundant than Prochlorococcus, indicating that most encounters did not result in infection and suggesting infection is mitigated via host resistance, reduced phage infectivity and inefficient adsorption. This method will enable quantification of infection for key microbial taxa across oceanic regimes and will help determine the extent that viruses shape microbial communities and ecosystem level processes.Subject terms: Microbial ecology, Microbial biooceanography, Molecular ecology, Microbial ecology, Microbial biooceanography     

Suitability of common weed species as host plants for the potato leafhopper,Empoasca fabae

The suitability of 13 weed species as host plants for the potato leafhopper,Empoasca fabae (Harris) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) was compared to alfalfa,Medicago sativa L., and broad bean,Vicia faba L., in laboratory and greenhouse tests. Nymphs developed and adults reproduced on five of the weeds: smartweed (Polygonum pensylvanicum L.), pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.), shepherdspurse (Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic.), dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Weber), and carpetweed (Mollugo verticillata L.). Adults survived and oviposited on all tested weeds, suggesting that nymph survival was the limiting factor in host suitability. Yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus L.), crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.), and foxtail (Setaria faberi Herrm.) were least suitable for adult and nymph survival. Large nymphs (instar III–IV) were able to complete development on weed species that did not support small nymph (instar I–II) development to adulthood. Densities of nymphs on weeds from alfalfa fields as well as the laboratory studies suggested that the weed species are less suitable as hosts and thus weeds probably do not affect population increases of potato leafhopper within weedy alfalfa fields by serving as hosts. Weeds may however, interact with the crop to alter leafhopper colonization, dispersal, and/or reproduction. In addition, since some broadleaf weeds are suitable hosts, the leafhopper may have a secondary beneficial role for biological weed control. These interactions should be considered when evaluating pest management practices.

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Eignung häufiger Unkrautarten als Wirte vonEmpoasca fabae

Zusammenfassung Der Wirtskreis derEmpoasca fabae (Harris) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) wurde im Labor und im Freiland untersucht. Dreizehn Unkrautarten, wie auch Luzerne (Medicago sativa L.) undVicia faba L., wurden im Laborversuchen geprüft. Die Entwicklung der Nymphen und die Eiablage setzten auf fünf Unkrautarten fort: aufPolygonum pensylvanicum L.,Amaranthus retroflexus L.,Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic.,Taraxacum officinale Weber undMollugo verticillata L. Die Eiablage und das Weiterleben der Imagines geht auf allen untersuchten Unkräutern weiter. Dies weist darauf hin, dass die Lebensdauer der Nymphen die Eignung der Wirte begrenzt. Das Weiterleben der Imagines und der Nymphen waren aufCyperus esculentus L.,Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. undSetaria faberi Herrm. am stärksten verkürzt. Die Altnymphentwicklung (3. und 4. Stadien) bis zur Imago war auf Unkräutern gewährleistet, dagegen erfolgte die Jungnymphentwicklung (1. und 2. Stadien) bis zur Imago nicht. Populationsproben von Luzerne im Freiland, wie auch die Ergebnisse der Laboruntersuchungen, zeigten, dass Unkräuter nicht im Wirtskreis der Nymphen vonE. fabae sind und dass Unkräuter in Luzernefeldern keinen Einfluss auf die Populationszunahme in solcher Feldern haben. Unkräuter in Luzerne dürften aber die Kolonisierung, Verteilung der Population im Feld wie auch das Vermehrungspotential vonE. fabae verändern. Weil einige Unkräuter Wirte der Imago vonE. fabae sind, können sie als Ausweichpflanzen dienen, wenn die Luzerne, z.BB. nach dem Schnitt, für das Ueberleben der Zikaden ungeeignet ist.

     

Optimal copper supply is required for normal plant iron deficiency responses

Iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) homeostasis are tightly linked across biology. Understanding crosstalk between Fe and Cu nutrition could lead to strategies for improved growth on soils with low or excess metals, with implications for agriculture and phytoremediation. Here, we show that Cu and Fe nutrition interact to increase or decrease Fe and/or Cu accumulation in leaves and Fe uptake processes. Leaf Cu concentration increased under low Fe supply, while high Cu lowered leaf Fe concentration. Ferric reductase activity, an indicator of Fe demand, was inhibited at insufficient or high Cu supply. Surprisingly, plants grown without Fe were more susceptible to Cu toxicity.     

Frequency and clinical patterns of stroke in Iran - Systematic and critical review

Background  

Cerebrovascular disease is the second commonest cause of death, and over a third of stroke deaths occur in developing countries. To fulfil the current gap on data, this systematic review is focused on the frequency of stroke, risk factors, stroke types and mortality in Iran.