A fluorimetric method for the determination of pepsin activity

An intramolecularly quenched fluorogenic peptide containing o-aminobenzoyl (Abz) and ethylenediamine 2,4-dinitrophenyl (Eddnp) groups at amino- and carboxyl-terminal amino acid residues, Abz-Lys-Pro-Ile-Glu-Phe-Phe-Arg-Leu-Eddnp, was hydrolyzed by purified human pepsin, gastricsin, and gastric juice uniquely at the Phe-Phe bond. Kinetic parameters determined for purified pepsin were K(m)=0.68+/-0.11 microM; k(cat)=6.3+/-0.16s(-1); k(cat)/K(m)=9.26s(-1) microM(-1); Gastricsin showed K(m)=2.69+/-0.18 microM; k(cat)=0.03+/-0.005s(-1); k(cat)/K(m)=0.011s(-1) microM(-1). Gastric juice (21 samples) from subjects without gastric disorders at endoscopy examination showed activities varying from 0.0008 to 9.72 micromolml(-1)min(-1). Pepstatin A inhibition of gastric juice enzymatic activity was complete at 3.4x10(-5)M (final concentration) inhibitor. In the proposed method the presence of a unique scissile bond in the synthetic substrate provides a direct ratio between enzymatic activity and amount of substrate hydrolyzed, and a unique step reaction facilitates the use of this assay for the determination of the activity of aspartic proteinases in biological fluids and during enzyme purification procedures.     

A new blood coagulation inhibitor from the snake Bothrops jararaca plasma: isolation and characterization

A novel thrombin inhibitor, Bothrops jararaca inhibitor (BjI), has been identified and purified from B. jararaca snake blood by two anionic chromatographic steps. Purified BjI showed two polypeptide chains with molecular masses of 109 and 138 kDa, by SDS-PAGE in reducing conditions. On the other hand, in nonreducing conditions the molecular masses were 150 and 219 kDa, suggesting that the polypeptide chain 109 kDa can be a dimer form linked by disulfide bond. However, the native BjI shows a molecular mass higher than 1000 kDa by gel filtration chromatography, indicating the need of a quaternary structure formation for the blood coagulation inhibition. BjI is a specific thrombin coagulant activity inhibitor that does not affect other thrombin functions, such as: amidolytic and platelet aggregation activities. BjI is not an antithrombin-like inhibitor. Fibrinogen and heparin competition ELISA assays with BjI and thrombin showed that fibrinogen does not interfere in the BjI and thrombin binding, however, heparin interferes in BjI and thrombin interaction, suggesting that BjI binds to heparin site or other sites close to it. Our findings indicate that BjI is an exosite binding thrombin inhibitor, specific upon coagulant activity thrombin inhibitor, without any anti-platelet aggregation activity.     

Rhipicephalus sanguineus trypsin inhibitors present in the tick larvae: isolation,characterization, and partial primary structure determination

Blood sucking animals are a rich source of proteinase inhibitors mainly those that interfere in their host hemostatic systems. The tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus is an ectoparasite of dogs and other animals. The aims of this work were the purification and characterization of serine proteinase inhibitors present in R. sanguineus larvae (RsTI). The inhibitors (RsTI) were isolated by affinity chromatography on trypsin-Sepharose and ion exchange chromatographies in Resource Q and Mono S columns. These RsTIs were separated in around 12 different protein peaks, when they showed molecular masses between 8 and 18 kDa, by SDS-PAGE. Purified RsTIs presented differences in the specificity for different serine proteinases. RsTIQ2 was, better inhibitor than RsTIQ7 and RsTIS5 for neutrophil elastase, plasmin, and HuPK with dissociation constants (K(i)) of 1.3, 3.2, and 22 nM, respectively. Other inhibitors such as RsTIQ7, RsTIS3, and RsTIS5 also affected neutrophil elastase and plasmin with K(i) in the nM range. The RsTIQ2, RsTIQ7, and RsTIS5 amino acid sequence data allowed classifying them as members of the Kunitz-type serine proteinase inhibitor family, even though the RsTI role is still unknown. Our present results showed that serine proteinase inhibitors from R. sanguineus are similar to inhibitors from Boophilus microplus other hard tick species, suggesting a similar role of these inhibitors in hard tick species and also as a potential tool to generate or improve vaccine against different ectoparasites with an unique antigen.     

Survival of Atta sexdens workers on different food sources

Leaf-cutting ants belonging to the tribe Attini are major herbivores and important agriculture pests in the neotropics, these ants being thought to feed on the sap which exudes from the plant material which they cut and also on the mycelium of a symbiotic fungus that grows on plant material inside their nests in what is called "the fungus garden". However, we have found that the survival of Atta sexdens worker ants on leaves, on mycelium of the ants' symbiotic fungus, Leucoagaricus gongylophorus, or on plant polysaccharides was the same as that of starved A. sexdens, while, conversely, significantly longer survival was achieved by ants fed on the fungus garden material or on some of the products (especially glucose) of the hydrolysis of plant polysaccharides. We found that the fungus garden contained glucose at a higher concentration than that found in leaves or fungal mycelium, and that this glucose was consumed by the ant to the extent that it was probably responsible for up to 50% of the nutritional needs of the workers. The fungus garden contained polysaccharide degrading enzymes (pectinase, amylase, xylanase and cellulase) in proportions similar to that observed in laboratory cultures of L. gongylophorus. It thus appears that A. sexdens workers obtain a significant part of their nutrients from plant polysaccharide hydrolysis products produced by the action of extracellular enzymes released by L. gongylophorus. In this paper we discuss the symbiotic nutrition strategy of A. sexdens workers and brood and the role played by plant polysaccharides in the nutrition of attine ants.     

In silico prediction of peptides binding to multiple HLA-DR molecules accurately identifies immunodominant epitopes from gp43 of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis frequently recognized in primary peripheral blood mononuclear cell responses from sensitized individuals

One of the major drawbacks limiting the use of synthetic peptide vaccines in genetically distinct populations is the fact that different epitopes are recognized by T cells from individuals displaying distinct major histocompatibility complex molecules. Immunization of mice with peptide (181-195) from the immunodominant 43 kDa glycoprotein of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (gp43), the causative agent of Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), conferred protection against infectious challenge by the fungus. To identify immunodominant and potentially protective human T-cell epitopes in gp43, we used the TEPITOPE algorithm to select peptide sequences that would most likely bind multiple HLA-DR molecules and tested their recognition by T cells from sensitized individuals. The 5 most promiscuous peptides were selected from the gp43 sequence and the actual promiscuity of HLA binding was assessed by direct binding assays to 9 prevalent HLA-DR molecules. Synthetic peptides were tested in proliferation assays with peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from PCM patients after chemotherapy and healthy controls. PBMC from 14 of 19 patients recognized at least one of the promiscuous peptides, whereas none of the healthy controls recognized the gp43 promiscuous peptides. Peptide gp43(180-194) was recognized by 53% of patients, whereas the other promiscuous gp43 peptides were recognized by 32% to 47% of patients. The frequency of peptide binding and peptide recognition correlated with the promiscuity of HLA-DR binding, as determined by TEPITOPE analysis. In silico prediction of promiscuous epitopes led to the identification of naturally immunodominant epitopes recognized by PBMC from a significant proportion of a genetically heterogeneous patient population exposed to P. brasiliensis. The combination of several such epitopes may increase the frequency of positive responses and allow the immunization of genetically distinct populations.     

A novel missense mutation (S18N) in the 5′ non-HMG box region of the SRY gene in a patient with partial gonadal dysgenesis and his normal male relatives

Mutations in the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome (the SRY gene) have been reported in low frequency in patients with 46,XY gonadal dysgenesis. We investigated 21 Brazilian 46,XY sex-reversed patients, who presented either complete or partial gonadal dysgenesis or embryonic testicular regression syndrome. Using Southern blotting, polymerase chain reaction, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and direct sequencing, we analyzed deletions and point mutations in the SRY gene. We found a missense mutation at codon 18 upstream of the 5′ border of the HMG box of the SRY gene in one patient with partial gonadal dysgenesis. This variant sequence was also found in DNA obtained from blood and sperm cells of his father and in blood cells of his normal brother. The S18N mutation was not found in 50 normal males, ruling out the possibility of a common polymorphism. We identified a novel familial missense mutation (S18N) in the 5’ non-HMG box of the SRY gene in 1 of 21 patients with 46,XY sex reversal. Received: 6 May 1997 / Accepted: 2 October 1997     

Aspirin-triggered resolvin D1 reduces parasitic cardiac load by decreasing inflammation in a murine model of early chronic Chagas disease

BackgroundChagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is endemic in Latin America and is widely distributed worldwide because of migration. In 30% of cases, after years of infection and in the absence of treatment, the disease progresses from an acute asymptomatic phase to a chronic inflammatory cardiomyopathy, leading to heart failure and death. An inadequate balance in the inflammatory response is involved in the progression of chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy. Current therapeutic strategies cannot prevent or reverse the heart damage caused by the parasite. Aspirin-triggered resolvin D1 (AT-RvD1) is a pro-resolving mediator of inflammation that acts through N-formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2). AT-RvD1 participates in the modification of cytokine production, inhibition of leukocyte recruitment and efferocytosis, macrophage switching to a nonphlogistic phenotype, and the promotion of healing, thus restoring organ function. In the present study, AT-RvD1 is proposed as a potential therapeutic agent to regulate the pro-inflammatory state during the early chronic phase of Chagas disease.Methodology/Principal findingsC57BL/6 wild-type and FPR2 knock-out mice chronically infected with T. cruzi were treated for 20 days with 5 μg/kg/day AT-RvD1, 30 mg/kg/day benznidazole, or the combination of 5 μg/kg/day AT-RvD1 and 5 mg/kg/day benznidazole. At the end of treatment, changes in immune response, cardiac tissue damage, and parasite load were evaluated. The administration of AT-RvD1 in the early chronic phase of T. cruzi infection regulated the inflammatory response both at the systemic level and in the cardiac tissue, and it reduced cellular infiltrates, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, fibrosis, and the parasite load in the heart tissue.Conclusions/SignificanceAT-RvD1 was shown to be an attractive therapeutic due to its regulatory effect on the inflammatory response at the cardiac level and its ability to reduce the parasite load during early chronic T. cruzi infection, thereby preventing the chronic cardiac damage induced by the parasite.     

Th1 and Th2 cytokine immunomodulation by gangliosides in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

In experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a classical model for multiple sclerosis, the cytokines provide the necessary signals to activate specific T cells for self-antigens. Gangliosides have multiple immunomodulatory activities, decreasing the lymphoproliferative responses and modulating cytokine production. Here, we tested the effects of gangliosides on the switching of Th1 to Th2 cytokine expression, in spleen cells obtained from Lewis rats during the acute phase of EAE, and after recovery from the disease. For this purpose, total RNA from spleen cells was isolated and submitted to RT-PCR to investigate Th1 (IL-2, TNF-alpha, and IFN-gamma) and Th2/Th3 (IL-10 and TGF-beta) cytokine gene expression. Results demonstrate that the group treated with gangliosides displays mild disease, with low expression of IFN-gamma mRNA and high TGF-beta mRNA expression. We conclude that the gangliosides may modulate Th1 cells by the synthesis of cytokines shifting the profile to the Th2/Th3 phenotype.     

ATP effects on insulin-degrading enzyme are mediated primarily through its triphosphate moiety

It has been reported previously that ATP inhibits the insulysin reaction (Camberos, M. C., Perez, A. A., Udrisar, D. P., Wanderley, M. I., and Cresto, J. C. (2001) Exp. Biol. Med. 226, 334-341). We report here that with 2-aminobenzoyl-GGFLRKHGQ-ethylenediamine-2,4-dinitrophenyl as substrate, ATP and other nucleotides increase the rate >20-fold in Tris buffer. There is no specificity with respect to the nucleotide; however, ATP is more effective than ADP, which is more effective than AMP. Triphosphate itself was as effective as ATP, indicating it is this moiety that is responsible for activation. The binding of triphosphate was shown to be at a site distinct from the active site, thus acting as a noncompetitive activator. With the physiological substrates insulin and amyloid beta peptide, nucleotides and triphosphate were without effect. However, with small physiological peptides such as bradykinin and dynorphin B-9, ATP and triphosphate increased the rate of hydrolysis approximately 10-fold. Triphosphate and ATP shifted the oligomeric state of the enzyme from primarily dimer-tetramers to a monomer. These data suggest the presence of an allosteric regulatory site on insulysin that may shift its specificity toward small peptide substrates.     

Nasu–Hakola Disease (Polycystic Lipomembranous Osteodysplasia with Sclerosing Leukoencephalopathy—PLOSL): A Dementia Associated with Bone Cystic Lesions. From Clinical to Genetic and Molecular Aspects

The authors review the clinical, radiological, electrophysiological, pathological, and molecular aspects of Nasu-Hakola disease (polycystic lipomembranous osteodysplasia with sclerosing leukoencephalopathy or PLOSL). Nasu-Hakola disease is a unique disease characterized by multiple bone cysts associated with a peculiar form of neurodegeneration that leads to dementia and precocious death usually during the fifth decade of life. The diagnosis can be established on the basis of clinical and radiological findings. Recently, molecular analysis of affected families revealed mutations in the DAP12 (TYROBP) or TREM2 genes, providing an interesting example how mutations in two different subunits of a multi-subunit receptor complex result in an identical human disease phenotype. The association of PLOSL with mutations in the DAP12 or TREM2 genes has led to improved diagnosis of affected individuals. Also, the possible roles of the DAP12/TREM2 signaling pathway in microglia and osteoclasts in humans are just beginning to be elucidated. Some aspects of this peculiar signaling pathway are discussed here.