GM crops: science, politics and communication

As the public debate in Europe about genetically modified (GM) crops heats up and the trade row between the United States and the European Union over GM food escalates, what better time to examine the issues with an international group of experts (Box 1). Their views are diverse, but they all agree that we need more impartial communication, less propaganda and an effective regulatory regime that is based on a careful case-by-case consideration of GM technology. It seems that GM crops are here to stay, so let us hope that these requirements are met and that the developing nations that perhaps have the most to gain from this technology can start to reap its benefits.     

Mutations in C2orf37, Encoding a Nucleolar Protein, Cause Hypogonadism, Alopecia, Diabetes Mellitus, Mental Retardation, and Extrapyramidal Syndrome

Hypogonadism, alopecia, diabetes mellitus, mental retardation, and extrapyramidal syndrome (also referenced as Woodhouse-Sakati syndrome) is a rare autosomal recessive multisystemic disorder. We have identified a founder mutation consisting of a single base-pair deletion in C2orf37 in eight families of Saudi origin. Three other loss-of-function mutations were subsequently discovered in patients of different ethnicities. The gene encodes a nucleolar protein of unknown function, and the cellular phenotype observed in patient lymphoblasts implicates a role for the nucleolus in the pathogenesis of this disease. Our findings expand the list of human disorders linked to the nucleolus and further highlight the developmental and/or maintenance functions of this organelle.     

The application of fluorescence spectroscopy to organic matter characterisation in drinking water treatment

Key to effective disinfection byproduct (DBP) management is source water control and management, and more specifically, organic matter (OM) control and management. However, the content and character of OM in source waters is spatially and temporally variable, and the prediction of its composition is challenging. Water treatment companies require adequate analytical techniques for OM characterisation to maintain the operation of the water supply and treatment systems adjusted to constantly changing environmental conditions. There is a requirement, therefore, for an improved understanding of OM composition and character in source water, how that composition and character varies with flow conditions, and how this impacts on drinking water treatment. This paper demonstrates that fluorescence spectroscopy offers a potential alternative to other analytical methods of OM characterisation. The advantages of fluorescence include rapid, sensitive and selective characterisation of OM, no sample pre-treatment, small sample volume, and the potential for on-line monitoring incorporation. Fluorescence can provide useful information on OM reactivity and treatability together with an indication of the OM sources (allochthonous or autochthonous). The paper discusses a body of literature which has identified relationships between fluorescence spectra and OM physico-chemical properties (i.e. degree of hydrophobicity, microbial content), has applied fluorescence spectroscopy to characterise the changes in OM upon disinfection, and has related the fluorescence properties to DBP formation. Further work is required in the robust management of data arising from fluorescence spectroscopy analysis and, in particular, Excitation Emission Matrices. Consideration must be given as to how the data might best be employed to greatest effect on a routine basis at WTW.     

Ecology drives intragenomic conflict over menopause

Menopause is the transition from reproductive to non‐reproductive life well before natural death. Rather than involving a smooth, rapid change, it is normally preceded by a long period of erratic hormonal fluctuation that is accompanied by a plethora of unpleasant symptoms. Here, we (1) suggest that this turbulent period owes to conflict, between a woman's maternally inherited (MI) and paternally inherited (PI) genes, over the trade‐off between reproduction and communal care; (2) perform a theoretical analysis to show that this conflict is resolved either through silencing or fluctuating expression of one of the genes; (3) highlight which of the symptoms preceding menopause may result from antagonistic co‐evolution of MI and PI genes; (4) argue that ecological differences between ancestral human populations may explain the variability in menopause among different ethnic groups; (5) discuss how these insights may be used to inform family planning and cancer risk assessment based on a woman's ancestral background.     

Effects of seed ingestion and herbivory by waterfowl on seedling establishment: a field experiment with wigeongrass Ruppia maritima in Doñana,south-west Spain

The ingestion of seeds by vertebrates usually affects the viability and/or germination rate of seeds. Increases in germination rate following passage through the vertebrate gut have often been assumed to be favourable for seedling survival and plant fitness, but this assumption has never been tested experimentally. Given that numbers of herbivorous waterfowl are higher in winter in Mediterranean wetlands, herbivory pressure there will be higher for early growing plants. In a factorial experiment we investigated the effects of seed ingestion by ducks (shoveler, Anas clypeata) on the survival of wigeongrass Ruppia maritima seedlings in the field in Doñana (south-west Spain), under differing exposures to herbivory by waterfowl and fish. We planted ingested and non-ingested seeds in December, using exclosures to protect half of them from herbivores. When they were protected inside exclosures, there was no difference between ingested and non-ingested seeds in the number of plants that survived until June-July. However, fewer plants survived from ingested seeds when exposed to natural levels of herbivory because they were exposed for longer than plants germinating from non-ingested seeds. In conclusion, increases in germination rate after ingestion are not necessarily beneficial for the plant, and the final outcome depends on complex interactions with other factors such as herbivore abundance.     

Excitotoxic Insult Results in a Long-Lasting Activation of CaMKIIα and Mitochondrial Damage in Living Hippocampal Neurons

Over-activation of excitatory NMDA receptors and the resulting Ca²⁺ overload is the main cause of neuronal toxicity during stroke. CaMKII becomes misregulated during such events. Biochemical studies show either a dramatic loss of CaMKII activity or its persistent autonomous activation after stroke, with both of these processes being implicated in cell toxicity. To complement the biochemical data, we monitored CaMKII activation in living hippocampal neurons in slice cultures using high spatial/temporal resolution two-photon imaging of the CaMKIIα FRET sensor, Camui. CaMKII activation state was estimated by measuring Camui fluorescence lifetime. Short NMDA insult resulted in Camui activation followed by a redistribution of its protein localization: an increase in spines, a decrease in dendritic shafts, and concentration into numerous clusters in the cell soma. Camui activation was either persistent (> 1–3 hours) or transient (~20 min) and, in general, correlated with its protein redistribution. After longer NMDA insult, however, Camui redistribution persisted longer than its activation, suggesting distinct regulation/phases of these processes. Mutational and pharmacological analysis suggested that persistent Camui activation was due to prolonged Ca²⁺ elevation, with little impact of autonomous states produced by T286 autophosphorylation and/or by C280/M281 oxidation. Cell injury was monitored using expressible mitochondrial marker mito-dsRed. Shortly after Camui activation and clustering, NMDA treatment resulted in mitochondrial swelling, with persistence of the swelling temporarily linked to the persistence of Camui activation. The results suggest that in living neurons excitotoxic insult produces long-lasting Ca²⁺-dependent active state of CaMKII temporarily linked to cell injury. CaMKII function, however, is to be restricted due to strong clustering. The study provides the first characterization of CaMKII activation dynamics in living neurons during excitotoxic insults.