Vibrio cholerae persistence in aquatic environments and colonization of intestinal cells: involvement of a common adhesion mechanism

Forty-one Tnpho A mutants of Vibrio cholerae O1 classical strain CD81 were analyzed for their ability to interact with chitin particles, Tigriopus fulvus copepods and the Intestine 407 cell line compared to the parent strain. Thirteen mutants were less adhesive than CD81; in particular, T21, T33 and T87 were less adhesive towards all substrates and insensitive to inhibition by N-acetyl glucosamine (GlcNAc). By SDS-PAGE analysis of sarkosyl-insoluble membrane proteins (siMPs) isolated from mutants and parent, it was found that a 53 kDa siMP is missing in T21, T33 and T87 mutants. It is hypothesized that this protein might have the function to mediate adherence to GlcNAc-containing substrates both in the aquatic environment and in human intestine.     

Unravelling natural killer cell function: triggering and inhibitory human NK receptors

Natural killer (NK) cells represent a highly specialized lymphoid population characterized by a potent cytolytic activity against tumor or virally infected cells. Their function is finely regulated by a series of inhibitory or activating receptors. The inhibitory receptors, specific for major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules, allow NK cells to discriminate between normal cells and cells that have lost the expression of MHC class I (e.g., tumor cells). The major receptors responsible for NK cell triggering are NKp46, NKp30, NKp44 and NKG2D. The NK-mediated lysis of tumor cells involves several such receptors, while killing of dendritic cells involves only NKp30. The target-cell ligands recognized by some receptors have been identified, but those to which major receptors bind are not yet known. Nevertheless, functional data suggest that they are primarily expressed on cells upon activation, proliferation or tumor transformation. Thus, the ability of NK cells to lyse target cells requires both the lack of surface MHC class I molecules and the expression of appropriate ligands that trigger NK receptors.     

Ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase and ferredoxin of the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii interact productively in Vitro and in Vivo

Toxoplasma gondii possesses an apicoplast-localized, plant-type ferredoxin-NADP(+) reductase. We have cloned a [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin from the same parasite to investigate the interplay of the two redox proteins. A detailed characterization of the two purified recombinant proteins, particularly as to their interaction, has been performed. The two-protein complex was able to catalyze electron transfer from NADPH to cytochrome c with high catalytic efficiency. The redox potential of the flavin cofactor (FAD/FADH(-)) of the reductase was shown to be more positive than that of the NADP(+)/NADPH couple, thus favoring electron transfer from NADPH to yield reduced ferredoxin. The complex formation between the reductase and ferredoxins from various sources was studied both in vitro by several approaches (enzymatic activity, cross-linking, protein fluorescence quenching, affinity chromatography) and in vivo by the yeast two-hybrid system. Our data show that the two proteins yield an active complex with high affinity, strongly suggesting that the two proteins of T. gondii form a physiological redox couple that transfers electrons from NADPH to ferredoxin, which in turn is used by some reductive biosynthetic pathway(s) of the apicoplast. These data provide the basis for the exploration of this redox couple as a drug target in apicomplexan parasites.     

Predicting potentially pathogenic effects of hRPE65 missense mutations: a computational strategy based on molecular dynamics simulations

The human retinal pigment epithelium-specific 65-kDa protein (hRPE65) plays a crucial role within the retinoid visual cycle and several mutations affecting either its expression level or its enzymatic function are associated with inherited retinal diseases such as Retinitis Pigmentosa. The gene therapy product voretigene neparvovec (Luxturna) has been recently approved for treating hereditary retinal dystrophies; however, the treatment is currently accessible only to patients presenting confirmed biallelic mutations that severely impair hRPE65 function, and many reported hRPE65 missense mutations lack sufficient evidences for proving their pathogenicity. In this context, we developed a computational approach aimed at evaluating the potential pathogenic effect of hRPE65 missense variants located on the dimerisation domain of the protein. The protocol evaluates how mutations may affect folding and conformation stability of this protein region, potentially helping clinicians to evaluate the eligibility for gene therapy of patients diagnosed with this type of hRPE65 variant of uncertain significance.     

A novel peptide-producing cell in Xenopus: multinucleated gastric mucosal cell strikingly similar to the granular gland of the skin.

We have characterized a novel peptide-containing cell within the gastric mucosa of Xenopus laevis. The cell is a spherical, multinucleated syncytial structure containing a cytoplasmic space filled with dense rice-shaped granules, and is strikingly similar in morphology to the well-studied granular gland of the amphibian skin. Immunohistochemical and immunogold methods were used to demonstrate that several peptides previously isolated from the granular glands of the skin, including the antimicrobial peptides magainin and PGLa (a peptide with amino-terminal glycine and carboxy-terminal leucinamide), are also stored in granules present in these enteric cells. These data demonstrate that this enteric peptide-producing cell is strikingly similar both morphologically and biochemically to the granular gland, previously considered a highly specialized structure of the amphibian integument. This novel gastric mucosal cell, which we have designated a "granular multinucleated cell," is distinct in its morphology and its diversity of stored peptide products from other well-characterized peptide-containing cells in the vertebrate gastrointestinal tract.     

The role of competitive learning in the generation of DG fields from EC inputs

We follow up on a suggestion by Rolls and co-workers, that the effects of competitive learning should be assessed on the shape and number of spatial fields that dentate gyrus (DG) granule cells may form when receiving input from medial entorhinal cortex (mEC) grid units. We consider a simple non-dynamical model where DG units are described by a threshold-linear transfer function, and receive feedforward inputs from 1,000 mEC model grid units of various spacing, orientation and spatial phase. Feedforward weights are updated according to a Hebbian rule as the virtual rodent follows a long simulated trajectory through a single environment. Dentate activity is constrained to be very sparse. We find that indeed competitive Hebbian learning tends to result in a few active DG units with a single place field each, rounded in shape and made larger by iterative weight changes. These effects are more pronounced when produced with thousands of DG units and inputs per DG unit, which the realistic system has available, than with fewer units and inputs, in which case several DG units persists with multiple fields. The emergence of single-field units with learning is in contrast, however, to recent data indicating that most active DG units do have multiple fields. We show how multiple irregularly arranged fields can be produced by the addition of non-space selective lateral entorhinal cortex (lEC) units, which are modelled as simply providing an additional effective input specific to each DG unit. The mean number of such multiple DG fields is enhanced, in particular, when lEC and mEC inputs have overall similar variance across DG units. Finally, we show that in a restricted environment the mean size of the fields is unaltered, while their mean number is scaled down with the area of the environment.

Defining the herpes simplex virus-specific CD8+ T cell repertoire in C57BL/6 mice

HSV type 1 (HSV-1) expresses its genes sequentially as immediate early (α), early (β), leaky late (γ1), and true late (γ2), where viral DNA synthesis is an absolute prerequisite only for γ2 gene expression. The γ1 protein glycoprotein B (gB) contains a strongly immunodominant CD8(+) T cell epitope (gB(498-505)) that is recognized by 50% of both the CD8(+) effector T cells in acutely infected trigeminal ganglia (TG) and the CD8(+) memory T cells in latently infected TG. Of 376 predicted HSV-1 CD8(+) T cell epitopes in C57BL/6 mice, 19 (gB(498-505) and 18 subdominant epitopes) stimulated CD8(+) T cells in the spleens and TG of HSV-1 acutely infected mice. These 19 epitopes identified virtually all CD8(+) T cells in the infected TG that represent all or the vast majority of the HSV-specific CD8(+) TCR repertoire. Only 11 of ～84 HSV-1 proteins are recognized by CD8(+) T cells, and most (～80%) are expressed before viral DNA synthesis. Neither the immunodominance of gB(498-505) nor the dominance hierarchy of the subdominant epitopes is due solely to MHC or TCR affinity. We conclude that the vast majority of CD8(+) T cells in HSV-1 acutely infected TG are HSV specific, that HSV-1 β and γ1 proteins that are expressed before viral DNA synthesis are favored targets of CD8(+) T cells, and that dominance within the TCR repertoire is likely due to the frequency or expansion and survival characteristics of CD8(+) T cell precursors.     

Analysis of detergent-resistant membranes associated with apical and basolateral GPI-anchored proteins in polarized epithelial cells

Detergent-resistant membranes (DRMs) represent specialized membrane domains resistant to detergent extraction, which may serve to segregate proteins in a specific environment in order to improve their function. Segregation of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins (GPI-APs) in DRMs has been shown to be involved in their sorting to the apical membrane in polarized epithelial cells. Nonetheless, we have shown that both apical and basolateral GPI-APs associate with DRMs. In this report we investigated the lipid composition of DRMs associated with an apical and a basolateral GPI-AP. We found that apical and basolateral DRMs contain the same lipid species although in different ratios. This specific lipid ratio is maintained after mixing the cells before lysis indicating that DRMs maintain their identity after Triton extraction.