Soil water availability for plants as quantified by conventional available water, least limiting water range and integral water capacity

There are different approaches to define the soil available water (SAW) for plants. The objectives of this study are to evaluate the SAW values of 12 arable soils from Hamadan province (western Iran) calculated by plant available water (PAW), least limiting water range (LLWR) and integral water capacity (IWC) approaches and to explore their relations with Dexter’s index of soil physical quality (i.e., S-value). Soil water retention and mechanical resistance were determined on the intact samples which were taken from the 5–10 cm layer. For calculation of LLWR and IWC, the van Genuchten-Mualem model was fitted to the observed soil water retention data. Two matric suctions (h) of 100 and 330 cm were used for the field capacity (FC). There were significant differences (P?<?0.01) between the SAW values calculated by PAW₁₀₀, PAW₃₃₀, LLWR₁₀₀, LLWR₃₃₀ and IWC. The highest (i.e., 0.210 cm³ cm^?3) and the lowest (i.e., 0.129 cm³ cm^?3) means of SAW were calculated for the IWC and LLWR₃₃₀, respectively. The upper limit of LLWR₃₃₀ for all of the soils was h of 330 cm, and that of LLWR₁₀₀ (except for one soil that was air-filled porosity of 0.1 cm³ cm^?3) was h of 100 cm. The lower limit of LLWR₃₃₀ and LLWR₁₀₀ for five soils was h of 15,000 cm and for seven soils was mechanical resistance of 2 MPa. The IWC values were smaller than those of LLWR₁₀₀ for two soils, equal to those of LLWR₁₀₀ for three soils and greater than those of LLWR₁₀₀ for the rest. There is, therefore, a tendency to predict more SAW using the IWC approach than with the LLWR approach. This is due to the chosen critical soil limits and gradual changes of soil limitations vs. water content in the IWC calculation procedure. Significant relationships of SAW with bulk density or relative bulk density were found but not with the clay and organic matter contents. Linear relations between IWC and LLWR₁₀₀ or LLWR₃₃₀ were found as: IWC?=??0.0514 + 1.4438LLWR₁₀₀, R ²?=?0.83; and IWC?=??0.0405 + 2.0465LLWR₃₃₀, R ²?=?0.84, respectively (both significant at P?<?0.01). Significant relationships were obtained between the SAW values and S indicating the suitability of the index S to explain the availability of soil water for plants even when complicated approaches like IWC are considered. Overall, the results demonstrate the importance of the choice of the approach to be used and its critical limits in the estimation of the soil available water to plants.     

Regulation of protein kinase C Apl II by serotonin receptors in Aplysia

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5HT) is the neurotransmitter that mediates dishabituation in Aplysia. Serotonin mediates this behavioral change through the reversal of synaptic depression in sensory neurons (SNs). However, the 5HT receptors present in SNs and in particular, the receptor important for activation of protein kinase C (PKC) have not been fully identified. Using a recent genome assembly of Aplysia, we identified new receptors from the 5HT(2) , 5HT(4) , and 5HT(7) families. Using RT-PCR from isolated SNs, we found that three 5HT receptors, 5HT(1Apl(a)) , 5HT(2Apl) , and 5HT(7Apl) were expressed in SNs. These receptors were cloned and expressed in a heterologous system. In this system, 5HT(2Apl) could significantly translocate PKC Apl II in response to 5HT and this was blocked by pirenperone, a 5HT(2) receptor antagonist. Surprisingly, pirenperone did not block 5HT-mediated translocation of PKC Apl II in SNs, nor 5HT-mediated reversal of depression. Expression of 5HT(1Apl(a)) in SNs or genistein, an inhibitor of tyrosine kinases inhibited both PKC translocation and reversal of depression. These results suggest a non-canonical mechanism for the translocation of PKC Apl II in SNs.     

Effect of carboxymethylation conditions on the water-binding capacity of chitosan-based superabsorbents

A superabsorbent polymer (SAP) from chitosan was provided via carboxymethylation of chitosan, followed by cross-linking with glutaraldehyde and freeze-drying. This work was focused on an investigation of the effects of monochloroacetic acid (MCAA), sodium hydroxide, and reaction time on preparation of carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS). The CMCS products were characterized using FTIR spectroscopy, and their degrees of substitution (DS) were measured using conductimetry and FTIR analysis. The highest DS value was obtained when the carboxymethylation reaction was carried out using 1.75 g MCAA and 1.75 g NaOH per g of chitosan in 4 h. The water solubilities of the CMCS products at various pHs were also evaluated, and the results indicated a significant impact of the reaction parameters on the solubility of CMCS. The CMCSs with the highest DS value resulted in SAPs having the highest water-binding capacity (WBC). The WBC of the best SAP measured after 10 min exposure in distilled water, 0.9% NaCl solution, synthetic urine, and artificial blood was 104, 33, 30, and 57 g/g, respectively. The WBC of this SAP at pH 2-9 passed a maximum at pH 6.     

Mycosubtilin Overproduction by Bacillus subtilis BBG100 Enhances the Organism's Antagonistic and Biocontrol Activities

A Bacillus subtilis derivative was obtained from strain ATCC 6633 by replacement of the native promoter of the mycosubtilin operon by a constitutive promoter originating from the replication gene repU of the Staphylococcus aureus plasmid pUB110. The recombinant strain, designated BBG100, produced up to 15-fold more mycosubtilin than the wild type produced. The overproducing phenotype was related to enhancement of the antagonistic activities against several yeasts and pathogenic fungi. Hemolytic activities were also clearly increased in the modified strain. Mass spectrometry analyses of enriched mycosubtilin extracts showed similar patterns of lipopeptides for BBG100 and the wild type. Interestingly, these analyses also revealed a new form of mycosubtilin which was more easily detected in the BBG100 sample. When tested for its biocontrol potential, wild-type strain ATCC 6633 was almost ineffective for reducing a Pythium infection of tomato seedlings. However, treatment of seeds with the BBG100 overproducing strain resulted in a marked increase in the germination rate of seeds. This protective effect afforded by mycosubtilin overproduction was also visualized by the significantly greater fresh weight of emerging seedlings treated with BBG100 compared to controls or seedlings inoculated with the wild-type strain.     

Systemic and mucosal immunity induced by oral somatic transgene vaccination against glycoprotein B of pseudorabies virus using live attenuated Salmonella typhimurium

Glycoprotein B mediates the absorption and penetration of the pseudorabies virus in the form of an immunodominant Ag, and represents a major target for the development of new vaccines. This study evaluated the efficiency of live attenuated Salmonella typhimurium SL7207 for the oral delivery of DNA vaccine encoding the pseudorabies virus glycoprotein B (pCI-PrVgB) in vivo, leading to the generation of both systemic and mucosal immunity against the pseudorabies virus Ag. An oral transgene vaccination of pCI-PrVgB using a Salmonella carrier produced a broad spectrum of immunity at both the systemic and mucosal sites, whereas the intramuscular administration of a naked DNA vaccine elicited no mucosal immunoglobulin (Ig)A response. Interestingly, the Salmonella-mediated oral transgene vaccination of the pseudorabies virus glycoprotein B biased the immune responses to the Th2-type, as determined by the IgG2a/IgG1 ratio and the cytokine production profile. However, oral vaccination mediated by Salmonella harbouring pCI-PrVgB showed inferior protection to systemic immunization against virulent pseudorabies virus infection. The expression of transgene delivered by Salmonella bacteria in antigen-presenting cells of both the systemic and mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues was further demonstrated. These results highlight the potential use of live attenuated S. typhimurium for an oral transgene pseudorabies virus glycoprotein B vaccination to induce broad immune responses.     

Leishmania major: low infection dose causes short-lived hyperalgesia and cytokines upregulation in mice

Neural involvement was traditionally associated with leprosy. However, more recent studies have shown the presence of a persistent hyperalgesia in cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by the infection of BALB/c mice with a high dose of Leishmania major. In this study, we report the presence of hyperalgesia within the first two weeks of infection caused by a low dose of the parasite. Using BALB/c mice, we demonstrate the presence of hyperalgesia during the first 10 days of infection as assessed by thermal pain tests. After 10 days these decreased pain thresholds start to recover resulting in similar levels to those in uninfected controls during the third week of infection. This hyperalgesia is accompanied by a sustained upregulation of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) and an early upregulation of interleukin-6 (IL-6) which is restored to normal levels after five days of infection. In conclusion, this study shows that, during early infection, the low dose of L. major causes hyperalgesia accompanied by an upregulation of IL-1beta and IL-6 and that these effects are reversed within the first two weeks of infection.