The growth of Korean immigrant entrepreneurship in Chicago

The growth of Korean immigrant entrepreneurship in Chicago is a product of three interacting factors: employment opportunities in the general labour market, resource mobilization, and business opportunity structures. Because of their language barrier and less transferable education and occupational skills in the American labour market, many Korean immigrants could not find white‐collar occupations for which they had been trained. Disadvantaged, but still strongly motivated for upward economic mobility in the United States, many of them became self‐employed business owners. Korean immigrants’ middle‐class backgrounds and their stable family structures and strong family ties helped them to realize their goal of business ownership. In addition, social networks based on kinship, friendship, church membership, and school ties provided prospective business owners with financial assistance, training, business advice, and information about business opportunities. The first business opportunities for Korean immigrants of Chicago opened in Korean ethnic markets and non‐ethnic minority markets almost simultaneously in the early 1970s. While the demand of Koreans for their cultural products created an economic niche for Korean‐oriented businesses, the export‐import trade linkage between South Korea and the United States has paved the way for the entrance of Korean businesses into minority areas. Because of different economic niches, the two types of Korean businesses developed independently. The interethnic succession of residence, which had occurred in the late 1960s and early 1970s also produced vacated business opportunities in Koreatown and black neighbourhoods, enabling Korean immigrants to enter these areas without great resistance from local businesses. After Korean immigrants had accumulated capital and experience in Korean ethnic markets and minority markets, they advanced into more capital‐intensive businesses like garment manufacturing. Korean immigrant professionals began to enter the Korean ethnic economy in the early 1980s when the foundation of the Korean ethnic economy was already established.     

Internal ethnicity in the ethnic economy

Internal ethnicity refers to ethnic subgroups within an immigrant group. An ‘ethnic economy’ includes the self‐employed and their co‐ethnic workers. Although most research treats the boundaries of ‘ethnic economy’ and its variant, the ‘ethnic enclave economy’, as though they were coterminous with those of national‐origin immigrant groups, this assumption is unreliable. Ethnic boundaries need not coincide with those of nationality origin when internal ethnicity exists. To test this hypothesis, we utilize survey data collected from a sample of Iranians in Los Angeles. Because this national‐origin immigrant group contains four ethno‐religious subgroups (Armenians, Bahais, Jews and Muslims), the Iranians in Los Angeles operated four distinctive ethnic economies, not one. Each ethno‐religious subgroup had its own ethnic economy, and these separate economies were only weakly tied to an encompassing Iranian ethnic economy.     

Potentilla jiaozishanensis sp. nov. (sect. Leptostylae,Rosaceae) from southwest China

Potentilla jiaozishanensis, a distinct new species of Rosaceae from Yunnan, China, is described and illustrated. Morphologically, it is closely related to P. stenophylla var. stenophylla but clearly differs from the latter by its bidentate leaflets, lanceolate epicalyx‐segments that are longer than the sepals, villose ovaries and achenes. Moreover, the pollen grains of P. jiaozishanensis are markedly different from those of P. stenophylla var. stenophylla in size and shape. The newly described species is endemic to the Jiaozishan Mountains, southwest China.     

Spathacanthus magdalenae sp. nov. (Acanthaceae), a riparian forest species from Veracruz,Mexico

Spathacanthus magdalenae Cast.‐Campos (Acanthaceae) is described and illustrated as a new riparian forest species from central Veracruz and from the eastern slopes of the volcano Cofre de Perote, Mexico. The new species is similar to Spathacanthus parviflorus, but differs in wider leaves and longer corolla tube. A key to all four species of Spathacanthus is provided.     

Chromosomal diversity in two synchronopatric species of Hoffmannseggella (Orchidaceae)

Hoffmannseggella viridiflora Verola & Semir (Laeliinae, Orchidaceae) is a recently discovered species in the campos rupestres vegetation of the Espinhaço Range, MG, Brazil, in synchronopatry with H. bradei (Pabst) V. P. Castro & Chiron. Both morphological and phenological studies indicate that these species are closely related. To substantiate the differentiation of these two species we examined their chromosome numbers and morphologies. The two species had different chromosome numbers, with H. bradei having 2n = 40 and H. viridiflora having 2n = 44 chromosomes, an aneuploid number not previously documented in the genus. Meiotic behavioral studies undertaken with H. bradei revealed many abnormalities related to bivalent numbers and chromosome migration, suggesting that meiotic abnormalities could generate aneuploid gametes and perhaps aneuploid zygotes. Karyotype formulas and chromosome morphologies are quite different between the species, so H. viridiflora was not directly derived from H. bradei through simple chromosome additions. Complementary analyses are necessary to understand the process and species involved in the origin of H. viridiflora.     

Growth characteristics of Adiantum reniforme var. sinensis and A. capillus‐veneris in response to light and soil moisture

Adiantum reniforme var. sinensis (Adiantaceae) is an endangered fern endemic to the Three Gorges region in southwest China. To elucidate possible ecophysiological mechanisms restricting its distribution, effects of the availability of light (28%, 14% and 7% of open field) and soil moisture (60% and 40% of field capacity) on dry matter production and allocation, leaf morphology and water use efficiency (WUE) were examined in A. reniforme var. sinensis and its widespread congener A. capillus‐veneris. Both species had lower root/shoot ratio (R/S) and higher specific leaf area (SLA) when grown at low light. However, A. reniforme var. sinensis showed less plasticity for total leaf area (LA) and leaf area ratio (LAR) than A. capillus‐veneris, and its root mass, total mass and WUE decreased as light availability decreased. Under water stress, all traits of both species except WUE were significantly affected. However, drought stress decreased total mass of A. capillus‐veneris but did not have a significant effect on A. reniforme var. sinensis. Compared with A. capillus‐veneris, A. reniforme var. sinensis had significantly higher R/S but lower values for other analyzed traits. These results suggest that A. reniforme var. sinensis is relatively superior in drought tolerance but inferior at low light, allowing it to persist in habitats with low soil moisture and high light availability but with few coexisting species present.     

Pradosia restingae sp. nov. from the Atlantic forest,Brazil

Pradosia restingae Terra‐Araujo, a new species of Sapotaceae (Chrysophylloideae) from the Brazilian Atlantic forest is described and illustrated. It is only known from the southern coast of the State Rio Grande do Norte and is likely restricted to the coastal sand dune ecosystem, locally known as the restinga forest, from which the epithet is derived. The species is naturally common, but due the low number of known subpopulations we assign P. restingae a preliminary conservation status of ‘Endangered’ (EN).     

Two new polypores (Ceriporiopsis lavendula and Skeletocutis inflata spp. nov.) from Guangdong Province,China

Two new polypores (Ceriporiopsis lavendula B. K. Cui sp. nov. and Skeletocutis inflata B. K. Cui sp. nov.) are described from the Guangdong Province in southern China. Ceriporiopsis lavendula is characterized by having resupinate basidiocarps with lavender to grayish blue pore surface and very thin to almost absent subiculum, a monomitic hyphal system with clamped generative hyphae, and oblong‐ellipsoid to ellipsoid basidiospores. Moreover, it grows on wood of Castanopsis exclusively. Skeletocutis inflata is characterized by having pileate basidiocarps, smaller pores (8–10 per mm), inflated and partly dissolved skeletal hyphae in KOH. In addition, its tramal skeletal hyphae are parallel along the tubes. Identification keys to species of Ceriporiopsis and Skeletocutis occurring in China are provided.     

Two new Andean species of Neocorynura (Hymenoptera: Halictidae: Augochlorini) with notes on their biology

We describe and illustrate the male, female, and pupa of two new species of Neocorynura from the Colombian Andes, and provide information on their nesting behavior, host plants and social organization. Nests of Neocorynura iguaquensis sp. nov. Smith‐Pardo & Gonzalez and N. muiscae sp. nov. Smith‐Pardo & Gonzalez were found in flat or vertical banks, and contained one to three adult females. The percentage of multi‐female nests varied considerably from 8.3% to 40% of the total of dissected nests at different times in 2000 and 2003. The ovarian development, wing and mandibular wear of females in the nests with two or more females indicated that they were the offspring that remained in the nest before dispersal or a mother and a newly emerged daughter. Pollen taken from the nest cells and scopae of museum specimens showed that both species rely heavily on pollen of asteraceans and may be active year‐round. Details on the nest architecture and comments on the phylogenetic placement of both species are also provided. Direct observations on the multi‐female nests are required to determine whether or not such nests contain temporary assemblages or truly semisocial colonies.

Resumen

Describimos e ilustramos el macho, hembra y pupa de dos especies nuevas de Neocorynura de los Andes colombianos, y proporcionamos información sobre su biología de nidificación, plantas hospederas y organización social. Los nidos de Neocorynura iguaquensis sp. nov. Smith‐Pardo & Gonzalez y N. muiscae sp. nov. Smith‐Pardo & Gonzalez fueron encontrados en el suelo, en áreas planas o barrancos verticales, y tenían de una a tres hembras adultas. El porcentaje de nidos con más de una hembra varió considerablemente desde 8.3% al 40% del total de nidos disectados a diferentes meses en el año 2000 y 2003. El desarrollo ovárico, desgaste de las alas y mandíbulas de las hembras en los nidos con dos o más hembras indicaron que ellas fueron las crías que permanecieron en el nido antes de dispersarse o una madre con la hija recién nacida. El polen tomado de las celdas de cría y escopas de especimenes de museo mostró que ambas especies dependen principalmente de asteraceas y que podrían estar activas todo el año. También oferecemos detalles de la arquitectura del nidos y comentarios sobre la posición filogenética de ambas especies. Observaciones directas de los nido con más de una hembra son necesarias para determinar si tales nidos son agrupaciones temporales o verdaderas colonias semisociales.