Ellesmeris sphenopteroides,gen. ET SP. NOV., a new zygopterid fern from the Upper Devonian (Frasnian) of Ellesmere,N.W.T., Arctic Canada

A new fern-like fossil plant is described from the lower Upper Devonian of southern Ellesmere Island, Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The plant occurs in an Archaeopteris-dominated flora preserved in the Nordstrand Point Formation (Mid-Late Frasnian) near Bird Fiord. The plant has a pinnate vegetative system with three branch orders and laminate sphenopteroid pinnules. Primary pinnae usually diverge from the main axis in distichous pairs (quadriseriate), but can depart singly (biseriate). Each primary pinna bears a basal catadromic aphlebia. Anatomically, the plant exhibits a mesarch, bipolar protostele that is ribbon- to clepsydropsoid-shaped in the main axis. Primary pinna traces are also initially bipolar and crescent-shaped, but may become four-ribbed before dividing into a pair of bipolar traces. The morphology and anatomy of this plant are nongymnospermous and are most similar to Zygopteridales (particularly Rhacophytaceae and Zygopteridaceae). The Frasnian age of Ellesmeris shows that laminated foliage had evolved in some zygopterid ferns much earlier than previously recognized. The Sphenopteris-like pinnules of Ellesmeris indicate the need for caution when attributing such a convergent foliar design to other plant groups, such as the Devonian gymnosperms.     

Emerging infectious diseases and animal social systems

Emerging infectious diseases threaten a wide diversity of animals, and important questions remain concerning disease emergence in socially structured populations. We developed a spatially explicit simulation model to investigate whether—and under what conditions—disease-related mortality can impact rates of pathogen spread in populations of polygynous groups. Specifically, we investigated whether pathogen-mediated dispersal (PMD) can occur when females disperse after the resident male dies from disease, thus carrying infections to new groups. We also examined the effects of incubation period and virulence, host mortality and rates of background dispersal, and we used the model to investigate the spread of the virus responsible for Ebola hemorrhagic fever, which currently is devastating African ape populations. Output was analyzed using regression trees, which enable exploration of hierarchical and non-linear relationships. Analyses revealed that the incidence of disease in single-male (polygynous) groups was significantly greater for those groups containing an average of more than six females, while the total number of infected hosts in the population was most sensitive to the number of females per group. Thus, as expected, PMD occurs in polygynous groups and its effects increase as harem size (the number of females) increases. Simulation output further indicated that population-level effects of Ebola are likely to differ among multi-male–multi-female chimpanzees and polygynous gorillas, with larger overall numbers of chimpanzees infected, but more gorilla groups becoming infected due to increased dispersal when the resident male dies. Collectively, our results highlight the importance of social system on the spread of disease in wild mammals.     

Subtle re-location of dendritic spine branches containing membrane with fast spiking mechanisms can alter synaptic efficacy

The potential physiological impact of morphological changes in the active dendritic spines, which are believed to be associated with altered synaptic efficacy, was investigated in a computer simulation study using the NEURON package [1]. A compartmental model of a simplified neuron was built, which included 30 complex spines (neck, head, and active zone) and accommodating AMPA-type synaptic inputs with alpha-function conductances. Hodgkin-Huxley type excitable membranes were inserted into the spine heads. It was shown that arranging spines in dense clusters, as opposed to a uniformly random spine distribution, has a negligible effect on the synaptic signal transfer (other model conditions, including synaptic input and spine density, remained unchanged). However, if a proportion (e.g., 3–20%) of the spines partly fuse with their neighbors forming branched spines, this could increase dramatically the cell response to the unchanged synaptic input. Results of this pilot study provide the basis for a more detailed investigation of the relationship between the spine arrangement and synaptic function, considering dual-component synaptic currents and mechanisms controlling ion fluxes in the dendritic compartments.     

THE ZOOSPORE OF CHLOROKYBUS ATMOPHYTICUS,A CHAROPHYTE WITH SARCINOID GROWTH HABIT

Chlorokybus atmophyticus has a sarcinoid growth habit and produces scale-covered zoospores. Flagella are laterally inserted and attached internally to a multilayered structure characteristic of the Charophyceae. There are two kinds of pyrenoid in each cell, a feature previously observed in only one scaly green flagellate. C. atmophyticus demonstrates that the sarcinoid growth habit arose independently at least twice in the green algae and cannot be used to define taxonomic groups unless combined with other criteria. It is further concluded that C. atmophyticus should be classified in a separate family Chlorokybaceae and a separate order Chloroky bales.     

Regeneration of Triticum aestivum apical explants after microinjection of germ line progenitor cells with DNA

A highly efficient method of regenerating fertile, phenotypically normal plants from shoot apex cultures of T. aestivum was developed. The hypodermal layer (L2) of the vegetative apex containing germ line precursor cells could be located with bright field microscopy and targeted for microinjection. Fluorescently labelled dextrans were used as markers to develop a microinjection procedure which did not disrupt nuclear or cytoplasmic structure. This procedure was used to inject plasmid DNA into L2 cells. Capillary microinjection did not shear the plasmid DNA and delivery of DNA was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction analysis of DNA isolated from injected apices. The significance of these findings in relation to the development of cereal transformation systems will be discussed.     

<Superscript>15</Superscript>N natural abundance of fossil peat reflects the influence of animal-derived nitrogen on vegetation

'¹⁵N signatures of fossil peat were used to interpret past ecosystem processes on tectonically active subantarctic Macquarie Island. By comparing past vegetation reconstructed from the fossil record with present-day vegetation analogues, our evidence strongly suggests that changes in the '¹⁵N signatures of fossil peat at this location reflect mainly past changes in the proportion of plant nitrogen derived from animal sources. Associated with uplift above sea level over the past 8,500 years, fossil records in two peat deposits on the island chronicle a change from coastal vegetation with fur and elephant seal disturbance to the existing inland herbfield. Coupled with this change are synchronous changes in the '¹⁵N signatures of peat layers. At two sites ¹⁵N-enriched peat '¹⁵N signatures of up to +17‰ were associated with a high abundance of pollen of the nitrophile Callitriche antarctica (Callitrichaceae). At one site fossil seal hair was also associated with enriched peat '¹⁵N. Less ¹⁵N enriched '¹⁵N signatures (e.g. -1.9‰ to +3.9‰) were measured in peat layers which lacked animal associated C. antarctica and Acaena spp. Interpretation of a third peat profile indicates continual occupation of a ridge site by burrowing petrels for most of the Holocene. We suggest that ¹⁵N signatures of fossil peat remained relatively stable with time once deposited, providing a significant new tool for interpreting the palaeoecology.     

The reaction of arsenite-complexed xanthine oxidase with oxygen. Evidence for an oxygen-reactive molybdenum center

The effects of arsenite on the reaction of reduced xanthine oxidase with oxygen are determined. The kinetics of the reaction monitoring the return of enzyme absorbance are investigated as are the kinetics and stoichiometries of peroxide and superoxide formation. Although some of the effects of arsenite are qualitatively consistent with expectations based on the known perturbation of the molybdenum midpoint potentials by arsenite, several results cannot be so easily explained. Specifically, arsenite introduces a very rapid phase (kobs = 110 s-1 at 125 microM oxygen) to the oxidative half-reaction which is not observed with the native enzyme. Arsenite also diminishes the amount of superoxide produced and eliminates one-electron reduced enzyme as a detectable kinetic intermediate in the reoxidation pathway. These differences appear to result from the ability of arsenite to greatly enhance the oxygen- and/or superoxide-reactivity of the reduced molybdenum center. This is reflected in the observation that reduced forms of arsenite-complexed xanthine oxidase lacking functional FAD (iodoacetamide-alkylated enzyme and deflavo enzyme) react relatively rapidly with oxygen whereas these reactions are quite slow in the absence of arsenite.