Cost-Effective Marine Protection - A Pragmatic Approach

This paper puts forward a framework for probabilistic and holistic cost-effectiveness analysis to provide support in selecting the least-cost set of measures to reach a multidimensional environmental objective. Following the principles of ecosystem-based management, the framework includes a flexible methodology for deriving and populating criteria for effectiveness and costs and analyzing complex ecological-economic trade-offs under uncertainty. The framework is applied in the development of the Finnish Programme of Measures (PoM) for reaching the targets of the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). The numerical results demonstrate that substantial cost savings can be realized from careful consideration of the costs and multiple effects of management measures. If adopted, the proposed PoM would yield improvements in the state of the Baltic Sea, but the overall objective of the MSFD would not be reached by the target year of 2020; for various environmental and administrative reasons, it would take longer for most measures to take full effect.     

Dissolved iron:phosphate ratio as an indicator of phosphate release to oxic water of the inner and outer coastal Baltic Sea

Pore water concentrations and benthic fluxes of dissolved Fe, P and N were measured at two coastal basins in the Gulf of Finland, northern Baltic Sea, during a seasonal cycle. The bioturbated inner coastal basin, where exchange of near-bottom water is efficient, had a better ability to retain P in sediments than the outer basin, where near-bottom water O₂ concentration decreases during summer. Under the presence of O₂ high pore water dissolved Fe:P ratio (>3.6 w:w) in surface layer of the sediment, measured especially in winter, indicated negligible or low P-release and high N:P ratio in the efflux. On the contrary, low Fe:P ratio (<3.6), measured in summer and autumn, indicated high efflux of P and low N:P flux ratio. The low dissolved Fe:P ratio suggested that there was not enough diffusing Fe to form Fe³⁺ oxide-rich layer in the oxic surface zone of the sediments or near-bottom water to bind the P diffusing from the sediment. However, in sediments bioturbated by the abundant bivalve Macoma baltica, small efflux of P were measured almost throughout the study period. Thus, the Fe:P ratio cannot alone explain the P-release in bioturbated sediments. The low N:P ratio in the efflux measured in summer and autumn partly explains the measured low N:P ratio in the near-bottom water and thus N limitation of primary production in the Gulf. Additionally, it is evident that the release of P in the Gulf itself is of great importance for the trophic state of the Gulf of Finland.     

Methodological Aspects of Applying Life Cycle Assessment to Industrial Symbioses

In view of recent studies of the historical development and current status of industrial symbiosis (IS), life cycle assessment (LCA) is proposed as a general framework for quantifying the environmental performance of by‐product exchange. Recent guidelines for LCA (International Reference Life Cycle Data System [ILCD] guidelines) are applied to answer the main research questions in the IS literature reviewed. A typology of five main research questions is proposed: (1) analysis, (2) improvement, and (3) expansion of existing systems; (4) design of new eco‐industrial parks, and (5) restructuring of circular economies. The LCA guidelines were found useful in framing the question and choosing an appropriate reference case for comparison. The selection of a correct reference case reduces the risk of overestimating the benefits of by‐product exchange. In the analysis of existing systems, environmentally extended input‐output analysis (EEIOA) can be used to streamline the analysis and provide an industry average baseline for comparison. However, when large‐scale changes are applied to the system, more sophisticated tools are necessary for assessment of the consequences, from market analysis to general equilibrium modeling and future scenario work. Such a rigorous application of systems analysis was not found in the current IS literature, but would benefit the field substantially, especially when the environmental impact of large‐scale economic changes is analyzed.     

Differential endocrine regulation of genes enriched in initial segment and distal caput of the mouse epididymis as revealed by genome-wide expression profiling

We have performed genome-wide expression profiling of endocrine regulation of genes expressed in the mouse initial segment (IS) and distal caput of the epididymis by using Affymetrix microarrays. The data revealed that of the 15 020 genes expressed in the epididymis, 35% were enriched in one of the two regions studied, indicating that differential functions can be attributed to the IS and the more distal caput regions. The data, furthermore, showed that 27% of the genes expressed in the IS and/or distal caput epididymidis are under the regulation of testicular factors present in the duct fluid, while bloodborne androgens can regulate for 14% of them. This is in line with the high testis dependency of epididymal physiology. We then focused on genes with moderate or strong expression, showing strict segment enrichment and strong dependency on testicular factors. Analyses of the 59 genes, including upregulated and downregulated genes, fulfilling the criteria indicated that the expression of 18 (17 downregulated genes; 1 upregulated gene) of 19 gonadectomy-responsive genes enriched in the IS was not maintained by the androgen treatment, whereas the expression of all six downregulated genes enriched in the distal caput and the majority of those with no strict segment enrichment of expression (28 of 34; consisting of 23 downregulated and 5 upregulated genes) were maintained by androgens. Hence, it is evident that testicular factors other than androgens are important for the expression of IS-enriched genes, whereas the expression of distal caput-enriched genes is typically regulated by androgens. Identical data were obtained by independent clustering analyses performed for the expression data of 3626 epididymal genes. Several novel genes with putative involvement in epididymal sperm maturation, such as a disintegrin and metallopeptidase domain 28 (Adam28) and a solute carrier organic anion transporter family, member 4C1 (Slco4c1), were identified, indicating that this approach is successful for identifying novel epididymal genes.     

Iron–Manganese Concretions Sustaining Microbial Life in the Baltic Sea: The Structure of the Bacterial Community and Enrichments in Metal-Oxidizing Conditions

The abundant deposits of spherical iron-manganese concretions in the Gulf of Finland are colonized by bacteria in vast numbers. Communities on the surface and in the porous interior have formed two separate clusters, in accordance with their genetic differences. The overall bacterial community in the concretions was highly diverse, representing 12 phyla. Half of the bacteria were affiliated with the most common classes of Proteobacteria, while a third of the bacteria were unclassified. Cloned 16S rRNA-gene sequences of the concretion bacteria showed high scores for similarity to the sequences obtained from sea sediments, metal-rich environments, and ocean crust. The clone library of native concretions was not dominated by known Fe- and Mn-oxidizing species. Known Mn-oxidizing bacteria Sphingomonas, Pseudomonas, and Bacillus were enriched in experiments with Mn²⁺-containing liquid media, whereas Prosthecobacter (Verrucomicrobia) and Rheinheimera were enriched in semisolid media possibly better simulating the natural conditions in the concretions. In a corresponding experiment, the Fe²⁺-oxygen gradient favored the enrichment of Shewanella baltica and Thalassolituus oleivorans, which are known to reduce Fe and to degrade petroleum hydrocarbons, respectively. An individual spherical concretion forms a microcosm for a diverse microbial community having potential to oxidize Fe and Mn as shown in cultivation experiments. Therefore, bacteria may significantly affect the formation of the concretions in the Gulf of Finland.     

Binding of phosphate in sediment accumulation areas of the eastern Gulf of Finland,Baltic Sea

The relationships between P and components binding P were studied by analysing the concentrations of N, P, Fe, Mn, Ca and Al in sediments and pore water along the estuarine transect of the River Neva in August 1995. The high sediment organic matter concentration resulted in low surface redox potential and high pore-water o-P concentration, whereas the abundance of amphipods resulted in high surface redox potentials and low pore-water o-P concentration. However, despite the variation in sediment organic matter and the abundance of amphipods, very reduced conditions and slightly variable concentrations of Tot-P (0.7–1.1 mg g^–1 DW) were observed in the 10–15 cm sediment depth along the estuarine gradient, indicating that the pools of mobile P were largely depleted within the depth of 0–15 cm. Multiple regression analysis demonstrated that organic matter and Tot-Fe concentration of the sediment were closely related to the variation in Tot-P concentration of the sediments (r ² = 0.817, n=32). In addition, the high total Fe:P ratio suggested that there is enough Fe to bind P in sediments along the estuarine gradient. However, low Fe_diss concentrations in the pore water of reduced sediment (redox-potential <–50 mV) indicated efficient precipitation of FeS (FeS and FeS₂), incapable to efficiently bind P. Consequently, the low Fe_diss:o-P ratio (< 1) recorded in pore water in late summer implied that Fe³⁺ oxides formed by diffusing Fe_diss in the oxic zone of the sediments were insufficient to bind the diffusing o-P completely. The measured high o-P concentrations in the near-bottom water are consistent with this conclusion. However, there was enough Fe_diss in pore water to form Fe³⁺ oxides to bind upwards diffusing P in the oxic sediment layer of the innermost Neva estuary and the areas bioturbated by abundant amphipods.     

Analyzing the Environmental Benefits of Industrial Symbiosis

Studies of industrial symbiosis (IS) focus on the physical flows of materials and energy in local industrial systems. In an ideal IS, waste material and energy are shared or exchanged among the actors of the system, thereby reducing the consumption of virgin material and energy inputs, and likewise the generation of waste and emissions. In this study, the environmental impacts of an industrial ecosystem centered around a pulp and paper mill and operating as an IS are analyzed using life cycle assessment (LCA). The system is compared with two hypothetical reference systems in which the actors would operate in isolation. Moreover, the system is analyzed further in order to identify possibilities for additional links between the actors. The results show that of the total life cycle impacts of the system, upstream processes made the greatest overall contribution to the results. Comparison with stand‐alone production shows that in the case studied, the industrial symbiosis results in modest improvements, 5% to 20% in most impact categories, in the overall environmental impacts of the system. Most of the benefits occur upstream through heat and electricity production for the local town. All in all it is recommended that when the environmental impacts of industrial symbiosis are assessed, the impacts occurring upstream should also be studied, not only the impacts within the ecosystem.     

Degradation of Crude Oil and PAHs in Iron–Manganese Concretions and Sediment from the Northern Baltic Sea

The ability of different sea bottom types to recover from oil contamination under oxic and anoxic conditions is poorly known in the brackish Baltic Sea. We carried out microcosm experiments to examine the capacity of iron–manganese concretions and sediment to remove petroleum compounds at 10°C. The biological degradation potential of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was indicated by the 1000-fold increase in the copy numbers of PAH-degradation genes resulting in 2.2 × 10⁶ gene copies g^?1 DW. In the experiments 35?81% of the crude oil and 96% of PAHs disappeared through abiotic and biotic pathways, and there was little difference between the concretions and sediment. Bacterial community analysis revealed that the bacterial sequences obtained from the oil-treated concretions were affiliated to groups typical for concretions and metal-rich environments, whereas oil-treated sediment sequences were similar to those originating from sediments and oil-contaminated environments. The high frequency of concretion clones affiliated with specific taxonomic groups of α-, β-, γ-, and δ-proteobacteria may indicate the existence of new clades of bacteria within the Rhizobiales and Rhodospirillales of the α-proteobacteria, Burkholderiales—incertae sedis of the β-proteobacteria, Chromatiales of the γ-proteobacteria and the Syntrophobacteriales of the δ-proteobacteria. Our study suggests that concretions and bottom sediment maintain rich, distinct bacterial communities under oil exposure that have the potential to remove petroleum compounds in oxic and anoxic conditions.