Expression of multiple complex polysaccharide-degrading enzyme systems by marine bacterium strain 2-40

Saprophytic marine bacterium strain 2-40 (2-40) can degrade numerous complex polysaccharides (CP) including agar, alginic acid, carrageenan, carboxymethylcellulose, chitin, β-glucan, laminarin, pectin, pullulan, starch, and xylan. The growth of 2-40 was assessed in minimal media containing one of 16 CP or simple carbohydrates, with the result that all supported growth. Each of the carbohydrase systems was elicited at highest levels by the homologous substrate. Each, excluding amylase, was repressed when 2-40 was cultured in glucose minimal synthetic media. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate alleviated the repression. Agarose as sole carbon source supported the synthesis of the most heterologous complex carbohydrase systems, although, generally, at a lower level of activity than the homologous CP. Received 02 February 1999/ Accepted in revised form 17 May 1999     

Characterization of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microbulbifer</Emphasis> Strain CMC-5, a New Biochemical Variant of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microbulbifer elongatus</Emphasis> Type Strain DSM6810<Superscript>T</Superscript> Isolated from Decomposing Seaweeds

A Gram-negative, rod-shaped, non-spore forming, non-motile and moderate halophilic bacteria designated as strain CMC-5 was isolated from decomposing seaweeds by enrichment culture. The growth of strain CMC-5 was assessed in synthetic seawater-based medium containing polysaccharide. The bacterium degraded and utilized agar, alginate, carrageenan, xylan, carboxymethyl cellulose and chitin. The strain was characterized using a polyphasic approach for taxonomic identification. Cellular fatty acid analysis showed the presence of iso-C_15:0 as major fatty acid and significant amounts of iso-C_17:1ω9c and C_18:1ω7c . Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rDNA sequence indicated that strain CMC-5 is phylogenetically related to Microbulbifer genus and 99% similar to type strain Microbulbifer elongatus DSM6810^T. However in contrast to Microbulbifer elongatus DSM6810^T, strain CMC-5 is non-motile, utilizes glucose, galactose, inositol and xylan, does not utilize fructose and succinate nor does it produce H₂S. Further growth of bacterial strain CMC-5 was observed when inoculated in seawater-based medium containing sterile pieces of Gracilaria corticata thalli. The bacterial growth was associated with release of reducing sugar in the broth suggesting its role in carbon recycling of polysaccharides from seaweeds in marine ecosystem.     

微泡菌属菌株YPW1和YPW16多糖降解特性分析

【背景】海洋环境中分离到的微泡菌属菌株具有多糖降解能力,在环境中可以作为糖类代谢的重要执行者参与海洋碳循环过程。【目的】测定2株微泡菌属菌株的多糖降解活性,通过与微泡菌属其他菌株基因组比较分析2株菌的多糖降解基因特征。【方法】通过3,5-dinitrosalicylicacid(DNS)定糖法测定多糖降解活性,同时利用高通量测序技术对菌株基因组序列进行测定与组装,并与其他基因组注释结果进行比较分析。【结果】分离得到2株微泡菌属菌株YPW1和YPW16,二者均为潜在新种。结果表明,菌株YPW1能够降解琼胶、褐藻胶、果胶、几丁质、木聚糖、淀粉、普鲁兰等7种多糖,而菌株YPW16仅可降解淀粉和普鲁兰。基因组分析表明,YPW1具有上述7种多糖的降解酶基因,但菌株YPW16只具有淀粉酶与普鲁兰酶降解基因。相较于其他微泡菌属菌株,菌株YPW1多糖降解范围、多糖降解酶基因种类与丰度较高,但菌株YPW16多糖降解范围却较为狭窄。由此可知,多糖降解酶基因在微泡菌属基因组中的分布差异性较大。【结论】本研究为微泡菌属提供了2株潜在的新型菌株资源,为生物多糖降解提供了生化工具,也为研究微泡菌属菌株中多糖降解基...     

Polysaccharide breakdown by mixed populations of human faecal bacteria

Measurements of polysaccharide-degrading activity in different fractions of human faeces showed that bacterial polysaccharidases and glycosidases were primarily associated with the washed bacterial fractions. Amylase, pectinase and xylanase were the major polysaccharide-hydrolysing enzymes detected, whilst α-L-arabinofuranosidase, β-D-xylosidase, β-D-galactosidase and β-D-glucosidase were the most active glycosidases. Starch and 3 non-starch polysaccharides (NSP; pectin, xylan and arabinogalactan) were fermented by mixed populations of human faecal bacteria in batch culture. Detailed carbohydrate analysis demonstrated that starch and pectin were the most rapidly degraded substrates and that arabinogalactan and the relatively insoluble polysaccharide xylan were broken down more slowly. Free sugars and oligosaccharides did not accumulate in culture media with any polysaccharide tested. Time-course measurements of polysaccharide remaining in the batch culture fermentations showed that the arabinose side chains of pectin, xylan and arabinogalactan were co-utilised with the backbone sugars. In these cultures, polysaccharide-degrading activity was mainly cell-associated, but extracellular polysaccharidase activity increased as the fermentations progressed. Molar ratios of acetate, propionate and butyrate produced in these experiments were dependent upon the polysaccharide substrate tested. Molar ratios of acetate, propionate and butyrate in the starch, arabinogalactan, xylan and pectin fermentations were 50:22:29, 50:42:8, 82:15:3, and 84:14:2, respectively. The presence of starch did not inhibit the breakdown of arabinogalactan, xylan or pectin by faecal bacterial, providing evidence that multicomponent substrate utilisation occurs when complex populations of faecal bacteria are provided with mixed polysaccharide substrates.     

Carbohydrate-binding domains: multiplicity of biological roles

Insoluble polysaccharides can be degraded by a set of hydrolytic enzymes formed by catalytic modules appended to one or more non-catalytic carbohydrate-binding modules (CBM). The most recognized function of these auxiliary domains is to bind polysaccharides, bringing the biocatalyst into close and prolonged vicinity with its substrate, allowing carbohydrate hydrolysis. Examples of insoluble polysaccharides recognized by these enzymes include cellulose, chitin, β-glucans, starch, glycogen, inulin, pullulan, and xylan. Based on their amino acid similarity, CBMs are grouped into 55 families that show notable variation in substrate specificity; as a result, their biological functions are miscellaneous. Carbohydrate or polysaccharide recognition by CBMs is an important event for processes related to metabolism, pathogen defense, polysaccharide biosynthesis, virulence, plant development, etc. Understanding of the CBMs properties and mechanisms in ligand binding is of vital significance for the development of new carbohydrate-recognition technologies and provide the basis for fine manipulation of the carbohydrate–CBM interactions.     

Polysaccharide inducible outer membrane proteins of Bacteroides xylanolyticus X5-1

Little is known about how bacteria degrade structural polysaccharides or the regulatory systems that control this degradation. Bacteroides xylanolyticus X5-1 is a Gram-negative, anaerobic bacterium that can grow on structural polysaccharides such as xylan and pectin. In order to determine the response of this organism to specific substrates,B. xylanolyticus was grown on a variety of mono-, di-, and polysaccharides. Electrophoretic analysis revealed no distinct differences in the polypeptide profile of the inner membrane enrichments of cells grown on different carbohydrates. However, distinct differences in protein composition of outer membrane enrichments were clearly observed. The profiles from cells grown on starch, xylan, and pectin were distinct from each other and their respective monosaccharide. In addition, cells initially grown on xylan did not alter their total membrane protein composition after three generations of growth in medium containing xylan and glucose. Thus,B. xylanolyticus X5-1 altered its outer membrane protein composition in response to specific polysaccharide substrates, but analysis of this specific response revealed no evidence that glucose was preferred over xylan as a substrate.     

Production of Polysaccharidases in Different Carbon Sources by Leucoagaricus gongylophorus Möller (Singer), the Symbiotic Fungus of the Leaf-Cutting Ant Atta sexdens Linnaeus

Leucoagaricus gongylophorus, the fungus cultured by the leaf-cutting ant Atta sexdens, produces polysaccharidases that degrade leaf components by generating nutrients believed to be essential for ant nutrition. We evaluated pectinase, amylase, xylanase, and cellulase production by L. gongylophorus in laboratory cultures and found that polysaccharidases are produced during fungal growth on pectin, starch, cellulose, xylan, or glucose but not cellulase, whose production is inhibited during fungal growth on xylan. Pectin was the carbon source that best stimulated the production of enzymes, which showed that pectinase had the highest production activity of all of the carbon sources tested, indicating that the presence of pectin and the production of pectinase are key features for symbiotic nutrition on plant material. During growth on starch and cellulose, polysaccharidase production level was intermediate, although during growth on xylan and glucose, enzyme production was very low. We propose a possible profile of polysaccharide degradation inside the nest, where the fungus is cultured on the foliar substrate.     

Inhibition of random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) by plant polysaccharides

A survey of the inhibition of the amplification of spinach DNA by various plant polysaccharides revealed that neutral polysaccharides (arabinogalactan, dextran, gum guar, gum locust bean, inulin, mannan, and starch) were not inhibitory. In contrast, the acidic polysaccharides (carrageenan, dextran sulfate, gum ghatti, gum karaya, pectin, and xylan)were inhibitory. In the process of preparing random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs), the loss of large DNA bands appears to be an indicator that the fingerprint pattern has been affected by polysaccharides. The addition of various concentrations of Tween 20, DMSO, or PEG 400 to the PCR reaction mixture resulted in partial restoration of amplification of RAPDs for the acidic polysaccharides. The most effective way to eliminate the effects of polysaccharide inhibition was by diluting the DNA extracts, and thereby diluting the polysaccharide inhibitors.     

Rapid estimation of polysaccharide content in complex microbial culture media

A rapid gravimetric assay for estimation of polysaccharide content in complex culture media was developed and validated. The quantitative assay showed great selectivity for the determination of xylan and pectin, eliminating all interferences from other medium components. In addition, our data showed this protocol could also be applied to the estimation of other polysaccharides in liquid media such as cellulose Avicel^®, chitin, starch and crude hemicellulose. Therefore, this method represents a useful tool for monitoring the in vitro microbial degradation of polysaccharides.     

Genomic Potential for Polysaccharide Deconstruction in Bacteria

Glycoside hydrolases are important enzymes that support bacterial growth by enabling the degradation of polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose, xylan, and chitin) in the environment. Presently, little is known about the overall phylogenetic distribution of the genomic potential to degrade these polysaccharides in bacteria. However, knowing the phylogenetic breadth of these traits may help us predict the overall polysaccharide processing in environmental microbial communities. In order to address this, we identified and analyzed the distribution of 392,166 enzyme genes derived from 53 glycoside hydrolase families in 8,133 sequenced bacterial genomes. Enzymes for oligosaccharides and starch/glycogen were observed in most taxonomic groups, whereas glycoside hydrolases for structural polymers (i.e., cellulose, xylan, and chitin) were observed in clusters of relatives at taxonomic levels ranging from species to genus as determined by consenTRAIT. The potential for starch and glycogen processing, as well as oligosaccharide processing, was observed in 85% of the strains, whereas 65% possessed enzymes to degrade some structural polysaccharides (i.e., cellulose, xylan, or chitin). Potential degraders targeting one, two, and three structural polysaccharides accounted for 22.6, 32.9, and 9.3% of genomes analyzed, respectively. Finally, potential degraders targeting multiple structural polysaccharides displayed increased potential for oligosaccharide deconstruction. This study provides a framework for linking the potential for polymer deconstruction with phylogeny in complex microbial assemblages.     

Differences in cell wall polysaccharide composition between embryogenic and non-embryogenic calli of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Medicago arborea</Emphasis> L.

Analysis of cell wall polysaccharide composition of embryogenic and non-embryogenic calli obtained from hypocotyl and petiole explants from Medicago arborea L. revealed significant differences. For calli induced from both hypocotyls and petioles, levels of total sugars, pectins, and hemicelluloses were higher in embryogenic than in non-embryogenic calli. Whereas in the residual cellulose fraction, the highest levels of sugar were detected in non-embryogenic calli. When comparing the two donor sources of callus explants, the highest total sugar levels were detected in embryogenic calli induced from petioles, mainly in the pectin fraction and to a lesser extent in the hemicellulose fraction. Moreover, analysis of uronic acids revealed higher levels in embryogenic calli, primarily in the pectin fraction. Analysis of those sugars associated with cell walls of calli suggested that these polysaccharides consisted of pectic polysaccharides and glucans, and that their levels were higher in embryogenic than non-embryogenic calli.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Natronoflexus pectinivorans</Emphasis> gen. nov. sp. nov., an obligately anaerobic and alkaliphilic fermentative member of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacteroidetes</Emphasis> from soda lakes

Anaerobic enrichment with pectin at pH 10 and moderate salinity inoculated with sediments from soda lakes of the Kulunda Steppe (Altai, Russia) resulted in the isolation of a novel member of the Bacteroidetes, strain AP1^T. The cells are long, flexible, Gram-negative rods forming pink carotenoids. The isolate is an obligate anaerobe, fermenting various carbohydrates to acetate and succinate. It can hydrolyze and utilize pectin, xylan, starch, laminarin and pullulan as growth substrates. Growth is possible in a pH range from 8 to 10.5, with an optimum at pH 9.5, and at a salinity range from 0.1 to 2 M Na⁺. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA sequences placed the isolate into the phylum Bacteroidetes as a separate lineage within the family Marinilabilaceae. On the basis of distinct phenotype and phylogeny, the soda lake isolate AP1^T is proposed to be assigned in a new genus and species Natronoflexus pectinivorans (=DSM24179^T = UNIQEM U807^T).     

Regulation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aspergillus</Emphasis> genes encoding plant cell wall polysaccharide-degrading enzymes; relevance for industrial production

The genus Aspergillus is widely used for the production of plant cell wall polysaccharide-degrading enzymes. The range of enzymes purified from these fungi covers nearly every function required for the complete degradation of cellulose, xyloglucan, xylan, galacto(gluco)mannan and pectin. This paper describes the Aspergillus enzymes involved in the degradation of these polysaccharides and discusses the regulatory systems involved in the expression of the genes encoding these proteins. The latter is of major importance in the large-scale production of these enzymes for industrial applications.     

Metabolism of Plant Polysaccharides by Leucoagaricus gongylophorus, the Symbiotic Fungus of the Leaf-Cutting Ant Atta sexdens L.

Atta sexdens L. ants feed on the fungus they cultivate on cut leaves inside their nests. The fungus, Leucoagaricus gongylophorus, metabolizes plant polysaccharides, such as xylan, starch, pectin, and cellulose, mediating assimilation of these compounds by the ants. This metabolic integration may be an important part of the ant-fungus symbiosis, and it involves primarily xylan and starch, both of which support rapid fungal growth. Cellulose seems to be less important for symbiont nutrition, since it is poorly degraded and assimilated by the fungus. Pectin is rapidly degraded but slowly assimilated by L. gongylophorus, and its degradation may occur so that the fungus can more easily access other polysaccharides in the leaves.     

The effects of plant polysaccharides and buffer additives on PCR.

A survey of the inhibitory effects of various plant polysaccharides on PCR amplification of a 974-bp section of rbcL in spinach revealed that most of the polysaccharides tested (arabinogalactan, carrageenan, dextran, gum guar, gum karaya, gum locust bean, inulin, mannan, pectin, starch and xylan) were not inhibitory. In contrast, two of the acidic polysaccharides (dextran sulfate and gum ghatti) were inhibitory. The addition of 0.5% Tween 20 reversed the inhibitory effects of gum ghatti (polysaccharide:DNA ratio of 500:1). The inhibitory effect of dextran sulfate (50:1) could be reversed by the addition of Tween 20 (0.25% or 0.5%), DMSO (5%) or polyethylene glycol 400 (5%), but none of these three additives were effective at a 100:1 ratio of dextran sulfate/DNA.     

Microbial polysaccharides with actual potential industrial applications

The microbial polysaccharides reviewed include xanthan gum, scleroglucan, PS-10, PS-21 and PS-53 gums, polysaccharides from Alcaligenes sp., PS-7 gum, gellan gum, curdlan, bacterial alginate, dextran, pullulan, Baker's Yeast Glycan, 6-deoxy-hexose-containing polysaccharides and bacterial cellulose. Factors limiting the commercial potential of certain microbial polysaccharides such as availability, rheological properties, and polyvalency are outlined. The polysaccharides are classified according to their uses as viscosity-increasing agents and as gelling agents. A third category includes polysaccharides with specific applications such as tailor-made dextran and pullulan and polysaccharides used as substrates for the preparation of rare sugars. The difficulties encountered in development of a polysaccharide at the industrial level are pointed out.     

Comparative Analysis of Carbohydrate Active Enzymes in Clostridium termitidis CT1112 Reveals Complex Carbohydrate Degradation Ability

Clostridium termitidis strain CT1112 is an anaerobic, gram positive, mesophilic, cellulolytic bacillus isolated from the gut of the wood-feeding termite, Nasutitermes lujae. It produces biofuels such as hydrogen and ethanol from cellulose, cellobiose, xylan, xylose, glucose, and other sugars, and therefore could be used for biofuel production from biomass through consolidated bioprocessing. The first step in the production of biofuel from biomass by microorganisms is the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates present in biomass. This is achieved through the presence of a repertoire of secreted or complexed carbohydrate active enzymes (CAZymes), sometimes organized in an extracellular organelle called cellulosome. To assess the ability and understand the mechanism of polysaccharide hydrolysis in C. termitidis, the recently sequenced strain CT1112 of C. termitidis was analyzed for both CAZymes and cellulosomal components, and compared to other cellulolytic bacteria. A total of 355 CAZyme sequences were identified in C. termitidis, significantly higher than other Clostridial species. Of these, high numbers of glycoside hydrolases (199) and carbohydrate binding modules (95) were identified. The presence of a variety of CAZymes involved with polysaccharide utilization/degradation ability suggests hydrolysis potential for a wide range of polysaccharides. In addition, dockerin-bearing enzymes, cohesion domains and a cellulosomal gene cluster were identified, indicating the presence of potential cellulosome assembly.