Perception of Human-Derived Risk Influences Choice at Top of the Food Chain

On human-used landscapes, animal behavior is a trade-off between maximizing fitness and minimizing human-derived risk. Understanding risk perception in wildlife can allow mitigation of anthropogenic risk, with benefits to long-term animal fitness. Areas where animals choose to rest should minimize risk from predators, which for large carnivores typically equate to humans. We hypothesize that high human activity leads to selection for habitat security, whereas low activity enables trading security for forage. We investigated selection of resting (bedding) sites by GPS radiocollared adult grizzly bears (n = 10) in a low density population on a multiple-use landscape in Canada. We compared security and foods at resting and random locations while accounting for land use, season, and time of day. On reclaimed mines with low human access, bears selected high horizontal cover far from trails, but did not avoid open (herbaceous) areas, resting primarily at night. In protected areas bears also bedded at night, in areas with berry shrubs and Hedysarum spp., with horizontal cover selected in the summer, during high human access. On public lands with substantial human recreation, bears bedded at day, selected resting sites with high horizontal cover in the summer and habitat edges, with bedding associated with herbaceous foods. These spatial and temporal patterns of selection suggest that bears perceive human-related risk differentially in relation to human activity level, season and time of day, and employ a security-food trade-off strategy. Although grizzly bears are presently not hunted in Alberta, their perceived risks associated with humans influence resting-site selection.     

Grizzly bear movements relative to roads: application of step selection functions

Access management is among the most important conservation actions for grizzly bears in North America. In Alberta, Canada, nearly all grizzly bear mortalities are caused by humans and occur near roads and trails. Consequently, understanding how bears move relative to roads is of crucial importance for grizzly bear conservation. We present the first application of step‐selection functions to model habitat selection and movement of grizzly bears. We then relate this to a step‐length analysis to model the rate of movement through various habitats. Grizzly bears of all sex and age groups were more likely to select steps closer to roads irrespective of traffic volume. Roads are associated with habitats attractive to bears such as forestry cutblocks, and models substituting cutblocks for roads outperformed road models in predicting bear selection during day, dawn, and dusk time periods. Bear step lengths increased near roads and were longest near highly trafficked roads indicating faster movement when near roads. Bear selection of roads was consistent throughout the day; however, time of day had a strong influence over selection of forest structure and terrain variables. At night and dawn, bears selected forests of intermediate age between 40 and 100 yr, and bears selected older forests during the day. At dawn, bears selected steps with higher solar radiation values, whereas, at dusk, bears chose steps that were significantly closer to edges. Because grizzly bears use areas near roads during spring and most human‐caused mortalities occur near roads, access management is required to reduce conflicts between humans and bears. Our results support new conservation guidelines in western North America that encourage the restriction of human access to roads constructed for resource extraction.     

人熊冲突缓解措施研究进展——以三江源国家公园为例

人与熊科动物之间的冲突已成为亚洲、欧洲和美洲地区的一个普遍问题,科学有效的人熊冲突管控措施有助于人熊共存机制的建立。目前,全球范围内肇事熊科动物涉及7种,分别为棕熊、亚洲黑熊、美洲黑熊、北极熊、马来熊、懒熊和眼镜熊。肇事类型主要包括伤人、捕食牲畜、入侵房屋、损害庄稼、袭击蜂箱以及翻食垃圾。引发人熊冲突的原因与人类活动范围扩大、熊科动物种群数量上升、熊科动物生境质量下降、熊科动物自然食源周期性短缺、人类食物来源易获得性以及公众对肇事熊的容忍度下降有关。国际上已有的人熊冲突缓解措施包括物理措施、生物措施、化学措施以及政策导向性措施,然而,多数措施的制定仅停留在措施本身的技术层面上,缺乏对地方实际情况和冲突驱动因素的分析。西藏棕熊属于棕熊的一种稀有亚种,生活在靠近人类的中亚高海拔地区。在中国三江源国家公园地区,人类与西藏棕熊的冲突引起了人们的关注,为协助制订有效的保育目标、解决区内人熊冲突问题,提出以下缓解建议:(1)缓解措施的制定需因地而异,综合考虑地方实际情况,如地理环境、法律法规、民俗文化以及宗教信仰等;(2)冲突类型多样,防熊措施需持续更新与完善;(3)加强人类社会发展与熊科动物生存之间的关系研究,探索人们生产生活方式的改变与熊科动物行为变化之间的关系;(4)加强棕熊生态学方面的研究,从棕熊生境质量、种群动态、自然食源以及生态系统完整性等方面去深入挖掘人熊冲突的驱动因素,进而从根本上制定缓解措施,促进三江源国家公园地区人熊共存。     

Mapping human- and bear-centered perspectives on coexistence using a participatory Bayesian framework

Coexistence with wildlife is becoming a key challenge in Europe as populations of large carnivores recover in human-dominated landscapes. Modeling the spatial distribution of conditions for human-bear coexistence can help support conservation by identifying priority areas and measures to support coexistence, but existing models often only address risks either to humans or to large carnivores. In this study, we developed a participatory modeling process that incorporates both human-centered and large carnivore-centered perspectives on coexistence and applied it to a case study of coexistence between humans and the endangered Apennine brown bears (Ursus arctos marsicanus) in Italy. Local and expert knowledge, as well as available data on bear habitats and land use, were integrated into a spatially explicit Bayesian network. This model is used to predict and map the tolerance to bears from the human perspective and the risk of fitness loss from the bear perspective. We found that conditions for human-bear coexistence vary between human communities and are spatially heterogeneous at the local scale, depending on ecological factors, social factors influencing the level of tolerance in community, such as people’s emotions and knowledge, economic factors, such as livelihoods, and policies such as damage compensation. The participatory modeling approach allowed us to integrate perceptions of local people, expert assessments, and spatial data, and can help bridge the gap between science and conservation practice. The resulting coexistence maps can inform conservation decisions, and can be updated as new information becomes available. Our modeling approach could help to efficiently target measures for improving human-large carnivore coexistence in different settings in a site-specific manner.     

云南高黎贡山国家级自然保护区保山片区周边社区人熊冲突现状

亚洲黑熊 (Ursus thibetanus) 与人类之间的冲突普遍存在。在高黎贡山国家级自然保护区周边社区,人熊冲突严重威胁了当地居民的生产生活和生命安全。因此研究人熊冲突现状是了解其发生机制并提出缓解冲突措施的基础。我们于2019年通过半结构式访谈法对高黎贡山保护区保山片区周边社区的79位居民进行了人熊冲突相关的调查。结果表明亚洲黑熊在高黎贡山保护区周边社区的肇事类型按发生频率由高到低依次为破坏农作物 (119起)、捕食家畜 (43起)、损害蜂箱 (40起) 和伤人 (5起)。亚洲黑熊造成受访者经济损失最多的肇事类型是捕食家畜 (799 200元),之后依次为损害蜂箱 (309 300元) 和破坏农作物 (298 790元)。在高黎贡山保护区周边社区亚洲黑熊肇事的高峰期是每年的7—9月。在高黎贡山东西两侧亚洲黑熊肇事特征明显不同：东坡以破坏农作物为主,而损害蜂箱在西坡最常见。居住在高黎贡山西坡的村民比在东坡的村民对亚洲黑熊持有更为消极的态度,但消极的态度没有导致他们对黑熊进行报复性捕杀。此外,在高黎贡山周边社区72.0%的受访者表示没听说过当地有偷猎黑熊的事件,98.6%的受访者表示没听说过熊产品交易事件,大部分受访者表示在未来也没有使用熊产品的意愿。本文分析了高黎贡山保护区保山片区周边社区人熊冲突的现状,探讨了人熊冲突的空间和时间格局,为在高黎贡山开展缓解人熊冲突措施提供了科学依据。     

小兴安岭地区黑熊的食性分析

2004 年5 月至2005 年11 月,在黑熊主要分布区小兴安岭利用无线电遥测技术跟踪黑熊并判定黑熊取食生境,收集黑熊粪便51 堆,利用粪便组织学分析方法对黑熊食物组成成分以及食物的选择性进行分析。结果表明:春初、秋末黑熊觅食生境为海拔400 ～ 560 m 的针叶林、针阔混交林;春末、夏初觅食生境为阔叶林、针阔混交林;夏季、秋初觅食生境为阔叶林、针阔混交林、河岸杂木林等。黑熊的大宗食物为植物,即使是夏季食物种类丰富季节,食物中植物成分仍近70% 。黑熊食物表现出季节性变化,季节不同采食种类不同,采食植物性食物的部位也不同。春季黑熊的食物种类最少,食物多样性指数为2.317,食物均匀性指数为0.5923,夏季的食物种类最丰富,食物多样性指数2.628,食物均匀性指数0.6367,秋季食物种类比春季丰富,但没有夏季丰富,食物多样性指数为2.361,食物均匀性最小,仅为0 5173。黑熊对植物类食物具有选择性,对红松、蒙古栎、核桃楸等坚果和猕猴桃、山桃等浆果类食物表现为正选择性;而对木贼、禾本科、榆、宽叶苔草、色木、桦、杨、柳表现为负选择性。      

Stochasticity in Natural Forage Production Affects Use of Urban Areas by Black Bears: Implications to Management of Human-Bear Conflicts

The rapid expansion of global urban development is increasing opportunities for wildlife to forage and become dependent on anthropogenic resources. Wildlife using urban areas are often perceived dichotomously as urban or not, with some individuals removed in the belief that dependency on anthropogenic resources is irreversible and can lead to increased human-wildlife conflict. For American black bears (Ursus americanus), little is known about the degree of bear urbanization and its ecological mechanisms to guide the management of human-bear conflicts. Using 6 years of GPS location and activity data from bears in Aspen, Colorado, USA, we evaluated the degree of bear urbanization and the factors that best explained its variations. We estimated space use, activity patterns, survival, and reproduction and modeled their relationship with ecological covariates related to bear characteristics and natural food availability. Space use and activity patterns were dependent on natural food availability (good or poor food years), where bears used higher human density areas and became more nocturnal in poor food years. Patterns were reversible, i.e., individuals using urban areas in poor food years used wildland areas in subsequent good food years. While reproductive output was similar across years, survival was lower in poor food years when bears used urban areas to a greater extent. Our findings suggest that bear use of urban areas is reversible and fluctuates with the availability of natural food resources, and that removal of urban individuals in times of food failures has the potential to negatively affect bear populations. Given that under current predictions urbanization is expected to increase by 11% across American black bear range, and that natural food failure years are expected to increase in frequency with global climate change, alternative methods of reducing urban human-bear conflict are required if the goal is to prevent urban areas from becoming population sinks.     

Black Bear Movement and Food Conditioning in an Exurban Landscape

Conflicts between humans and wildlife have become increasingly important challenges for resource managers along the urban-wildland interface. Food conditioning (i.e., reliance by an animal on anthropogenic foods) of American black bears (Ursus americanus) is related to conflict behavior (i.e., being bold or aggressive toward humans, consuming human food or garbage, causing property damage) and often occurs in communities adjacent to Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GRSM or Park), USA. The goal of our study was to evaluate black bear space use in GRSM and in exurban areas on surrounding private lands and to identify factors associated with food conditioning and conflict behavior. We radio-collared 53 bears (29 males, 24 females) from 2015 to 2017 to compare space use characteristics and used carbon isotopic signatures (δ¹³C) from bear hair to assess food conditioning. We then performed an integrated step selection function (iSSF) analysis to characterize and compare movement and resource use as related to food conditioning. Based on the stable isotope analyses, 24 bears were classified as food conditioned (FC; 16 males and 8 females) and 37 were not food conditioned (NFC; 14 males and 23 females). Annual 95% kernel density estimate (KDE) home ranges and 50% KDE core area estimates of female and male bears did not differ by level of food conditioning (i.e., mean δ¹³C), but 95% and 50% home ranges of FC females were smaller than NFC females when data from 2015, a year of food scarcity and abnormally large home ranges, were excluded. The mean proportion of exurban development (e.g., roads, buildings, openings) within 95% KDE and 50% KDE home ranges of females increased with mean δ¹³C (i.e., greater food conditioning). The iSSF models indicated that FC bears were more likely to use forest openings associated with higher levels of development than NFC bears. We used those models to demonstrate how landscape modifications can reduce bear use of exurban areas, particularly for NFC bears. Our stable isotope, movement, and resource use data indicate that conflict behaviors displayed by many bears within GRSM were learned in areas outside Park boundaries. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

Spatial Distribution of Black Bear Incident Reports in Michigan

Interactions between humans and carnivores have existed for centuries due to competition for food and space. American black bears are increasing in abundance and populations are expanding geographically in many portions of its range, including areas that are also increasing in human density, often resulting in associated increases in human-bear conflict (hereafter, bear incidents). We used public reports of bear incidents in Michigan, USA, from 2003–2011 to assess the relative contributions of ecological and anthropogenic variables in explaining the spatial distribution of bear incidents and estimated the potential risk of bear incidents. We used weighted Normalized Difference Vegetation Index mean as an index of primary productivity, region (i.e., Upper Peninsula or Lower Peninsula), primary and secondary road densities, and percentage land cover type within 6.5-km² circular buffers around bear incidents and random points. We developed 22 a priori models and used generalized linear models and Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC) to rank models. The global model was the best compromise between model complexity and model fit (w = 0.99), with a ΔAIC 8.99 units from the second best performing model. We found that as deciduous forest cover increased, the probability of bear incident occurrence increased. Among the measured anthropogenic variables, cultivated crops and primary roads were the most important in our AIC-best model and were both positively related to the probability of bear incident occurrence. The spatial distribution of relative bear incident risk varied markedly throughout Michigan. Forest cover fragmented with agriculture and other anthropogenic activities presents an environment that likely facilitates bear incidents. Our map can help wildlife managers identify areas of bear incident occurrence, which in turn can be used to help develop strategies aimed at reducing incidents. Researchers and wildlife managers can use similar mapping techniques to assess locations of specific conflict types or to address human impacts on endangered species.     

Resource Selection by Recolonizing American Black Bears

American black bears (Ursus americanus) were extirpated from Oklahoma, USA, in the early twentieth century but have since recolonized eastern portions of the state after immigrating from Arkansas, where they were successfully translocated. Within the last 2 decades, a population of black bears was detected in the Oklahoma Ozark region, prompting studies to determine population size, growth rate, and genetic makeup. To understand how black bears were recolonizing the human-dominated landscape, we investigated resource selection at 2 scales. Between 2011 and 2016, we collected global positioning system collar spatial data for 10 males and 13 females. We calculated average kernel density home ranges on a seasonal scale for all collared bears. We used generalized linear mixed models to calculate resource selection functions at the study area, defined by locations of all radio-collared black bears (second order) and the scale of individual black bear home ranges (third order). Resource selection did not differ significantly by sex. Black bears across seasons and scales selected riparian forest and moist oak (Quercus spp.) forest land cover types and mostly selected against indicators of human activity (e.g., pasture-prairie, anthropogenic land cover types, roads, and areas of high human population density). Black bears also selected areas with rugged terrain at high elevations, although not consistently across seasons and scales. Black bear recolonization appeared to be negatively affected by areas and features characterized as human-altered. Further expansion of the range of black bears may be limited by anthropogenic disturbance in the region. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

A Hierarchical Analysis of Habitat Selection by Raccoons in Northern Indiana

Abstract: Although numerous studies have examined habitat use by raccoons (Procyon lotor), information regarding seasonal habitat selection related to resource availability in agricultural landscapes is lacking for this species. Additionally, few studies using radiotelemetry have investigated habitat selection at multiple spatial scales or core-use areas by raccoons. We examined seasonal habitat selection of 55 (31 M, 24 F) adult raccoons at 3 hierarchical orders defined by the movement behavior of this species (second-order home range, second-order core-use area, and third-order home range) in northern Indiana, USA, from May 2003 to June 2005. Using compositional analysis, we assessed whether habitat selection differed from random and ranked habitat types in order of selection during the crop growing period (season 1) and corn maturation period (season 2), which represented substantial shifts in resource availability to raccoons. Habitat rankings differed across hierarchical orders, between seasons within hierarchical orders, and between sexes within seasons; however, seasonal and intersexual patterns of habitat selection were not consistent across hierarchical orders of spatial scale. When nonrandom utilization was detected, both sexes consistently selected forest cover over other available habitats. Seasonal differences in habitat selection were most evident at the core-area scale, where raccoon selection of agricultural lands was highest during the maturation season when corn was available as a direct food source. Habitat use did not differ from availability for either sex in either season at the third-order scale. The selection of forest cover across both seasons and all spatial orders suggested that raccoon distribution and abundance in fragmented landscapes is likely dependent on the availability and distribution of forest cover, or habitats associated with forest (i.e., water), within the landscape. The lack of consistency in habitat selection across hierarchical scales further exemplifies the need to examine multiple biological scales in habitat-selection studies.     

云岭自然保护区拉沙山区域亚洲黑熊的活动模式

中国西南山地是亚洲黑熊(Ursus thibetanus)的重要分布地,但是对该物种的活动模式研究很少.2017年7月-2019年8月,本研究以云南兰坪云岭省级自然保护区拉沙山区域亚洲黑熊为研究对象,按照250 m×250 m网格布设218台红外相机,累计有效拍摄日为36 175 d,共获得亚洲黑熊的独立照片(Inde...     

Spatial distribution as a measure of conservation needs: an example with Asiatic black bears in south-western China

Aim To create a fine‐scale map of the distribution of Asiatic black bears, identify landscape variables affecting the spatial range of this species and assess population trends using presence–absence data and opinions of local villagers. Location Sichuan Province, south‐western China. Methods We divided the province into 15 × 15 km cells, stratified them by forest cover, elevation and road density and randomly selected 494 cells (21% of province) for surveys. In each cell, we interviewed villagers and ground‐verified their reports of bear presence. We ground‐truthed reports of bear absence by conducting transects for bear sign in the best available habitat. We used logistic regression to identify key variables affecting presence of bears and predict their occurrence in unsampled cells. Results We detected bears in 360 cells (73%). Models correctly predicted bear occurrence in 90.3% of cells where we detected bears and 84.5% of sampled cells where bears were absent. Models predicted 42.7% of Sichuan to be occupied by bears. Bear occurrence was strongly related to forest cover throughout the province. Roads had a negative effect in western region of province. Agricultural lands had a negative effect only when they were distant from forests. Villagers were accurate in their knowledge of bear presence or absence. Interviewed villagers (n = 1816) thought that bears were increasing in 32%, stable in 10%, and decreasing in 58% of cells with bears. Where bear populations were perceived to be declining, villagers identified poaching as the most common cause. Main conclusions Our fine‐scale distribution map can be used for future monitoring and the key landscape factors related to occupancy by bears can be used in management plans for this species. Interviewing local villagers is an efficient and reliable means of assessing distribution, and changes therein, for animals such as bears that often interact with people and leave obvious signs.     

Extirpation Risk of an Isolated Black Bear Population Under Different Management Scenarios

ABSTRACT Habitat loss and anthropogenic mortality are recognized as threats to populations of large carnivores worldwide, yet their relative importance to extinction risk has rarely been quantified. We used population viability analysis (PVA) to estimate extinction probability of an isolated population of black bears (Ursus americanus) on the Bruce Peninsula, Ontario, Canada under different management scenarios. We used random-effects analysis of variance to estimate components of variance in extinction risk explained by 4 management actions: 1) preventing habitat destruction, 2) reducing or eliminating incidental non-natural mortality, 3) reducing or eliminating harvest, and 4) reducing the fraction of reproducing females in the harvest. Habitat area reductions had the greatest effect on risk despite uncertainty in bear density. Incidental non-natural mortality had a greater effect than the rate or age and sex distribution of harvest. Quantifying the variation in outputs of PVA models associated with different management options is an improvement over qualitative comparisons of relative risk and enhances the applicability of PVA to management. This study highlights the importance of protecting habitats on adjacent private lands when reserves are too small to support populations of bears, and of protecting reproducing females from non-natural mortality—results that could aid managers of other large carnivores in focusing management efforts to ensure persistence of populations.     

Space Use and Habitat Selection by Female Louisiana Black Bears in the Tensas River Basin of Louisiana

Abstract: Studies of space use and habitat selection of endangered species are useful for identifying factors that influence fitness of individuals and viability of populations. However, there is a lack of published information regarding these behaviors for the federally threatened Louisiana black bear (Ursus americanus luteolus). We documented space use and habitat selection for 28 female black bears in 2 subpopulations of the Tensas River Basin population in northeast Louisiana, USA. The Tensas subpopulation inhabits a relatively large (>300-km²) contiguous area of bottomland hardwood forest, whereas the Deltic subpopulation exists mainly in 2 small (<7-km²) forested patches surrounded by an agricultural matrix. Females on Deltic maintained smaller seasonal and annual home ranges than females on Tensas (all P < 0.04), except for females with cubs during spring. On Tensas, females with cubs maintained smaller home ranges than females without cubs during spring (P = 0.01), but we did not detect this difference on Deltic or in other seasons. Females on Tensas and Deltic exhibited differences in habitat selection when establishing home ranges and within home ranges (P < 0.001). Deltic females selected mature bottomland hardwood forests and avoided agricultural habitats at both spatial scales. Tensas females selected a mixture of swamps, mature and regenerating forests, and exhibited variation in selection across scale, season, and reproductive status. We suggest that differences in space use and habitat selection between Tensas and Deltic are at least partially due to habitat differences at the landscape (i.e., amount of forested habitat) and patch (i.e., food availability) scales. Our results contribute to the understanding of factors that influence space use and habitat selection by black bears and provide specific information on habitat types selected by Louisiana black bears to agencies involved in habitat protection and restoration for this threatened subspecies.     

Evaluating the role of environmental familiarity and behaviour in the success of wildlife translocation: A grizzly bear case study using agent-based modelling

Human-carnivore systems are built on multi-scalar complex processes often resulting in conflicts that force wildlife managers to address what are conceived as problem individuals. In North America, the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) is often involved in human-bear conflict with management measures such as translocations, in which problem individuals are moved to new areas, being used to reduce conflict risk. While translocations offer a non-lethal alternative to managing conflict animals, they show varying levels of success. Our objective was to perform a novel assessment of grizzly bear translocation success through agent-based simulation by evaluating how familiarity with landscape features coupled with behavioral traits affects the way individuals use resources in a new environment. Our results showed that bears translocated to familiar habitat used high-quality habitat more than bears moved to areas with unfamiliar landscape characteristics. Increased exploration led to greater use of high-quality habitat in the long run but resulted in reduced use of high-quality habitat during the first two years following a translocation. Habitat quality use depended on scale, with bears translocated to less familiar environments accessing higher quality areas at a finer scale than bears translocated to familiar habitats. We emphasize the need to account for wildlife behavioral traits and habitat characteristics at multiple scales when selecting suitable translocation locations. Understanding the role of factors such as these on translocation outcome will help ensure the success of translocations not only as a method for managing problem wildlife, but also for population restoration, species reestablishment, and conservation translocations across the globe.     

Habitat use by black bears in relation to conspecifics and competitors

Sympatric black bears (Ursus americanus) and brown bears (Ursus arctos) are common in many boreal systems; however, few predator assemblages are known to coexist on a single seasonally abundant large prey item. In lowland southwestern interior Alaska, black bears and brown bears are considered the primary cause of moose (Alces alces) calf mortality during the first 6 weeks of life. The objective of this study was to document habitat use of global-positioning system (GPS)-collared black bears during peak and non-peak seasons of black bear-induced and brown bear-induced moose calf mortality within southwestern interior Alaska, in spring 2002. We compared habitats of GPS-collared black bears to those of presumably uncollared black bears and brown bears at their moose calf mortality sites. Results from this study suggest that GPS-collared black bears use similar habitat as conspecifics more than expected during the peak period of black bear predation on moose calves, whereas they use habitat in proportion to home range availability during the peak in brown bear predation on moose calves. Sex-specific Ivlev's electivity indices describe greater than expected use of mixed-deciduous forest and needleleaf forest by male GPS-collared black bears during the peak of moose calf predation, whereas females have a tendency to use these habitats less than expected. Juvenile GPS-collared black bears largely use the same habitat as other sympatric predators during the peak of moose calf predation, whereas during the non-peak period juveniles use opposite habitats as adult GPS-collared black bears. The outcome of this study offers possible explanations (e.g., sex, age) for spatial overlap or segregation in one member of a complex predator guild in relation to a seasonal pulse of preferred prey.     

Land tenure shapes black bear density and abundance on a multi‐use landscape

Global biodiversity is decreasing rapidly. Parks and protected lands, while designed to conserve wildlife, often cannot provide the habitat protection needed for wide‐ranging animals such as the American black bear (Ursus americanus). Conversely, private lands are often working landscapes (e.g., farming) that have high human footprints relative to protected lands. In southwestern Alberta, road densities are highest on private lands and black bears can be hunted year‐round. On protected lands, road densities are lowest, and hunting is prohibited. On public lands under the jurisdiction of the provincial government (Crown lands), seasonal hunting is permitted. Population estimates are needed to calculate sustainable harvest levels and to monitor population trends. In our study area, there has never been a robust estimate of black bear density and spatial drivers of black bear density are poorly understood. We used non‐invasive genetic sampling and indices of habitat productivity and human disturbance to estimate density and abundance for male and female black bears in 2013 and 2014 using two methods: spatially explicit capture–recapture (SECR) and resource‐selection functions (RSF). Land tenure best explained spatial variation in black bear density. Black bear densities for females and males were highest on parkland and lowest on Crown lands. Sex ratios were female‐biased on private lands, likely a result of lower harvests and movement of females out of areas with high male density. Synthesis and application: Both SECR and RSF methods clearly indicate spatial structuring of black bear density, with a strong influence based on how lands are managed. Land tenure influences the distribution of available foods and risk from humans. We emphasize the need for improved harvest reporting, particularly for non‐licensed hunting on private land, to estimate the extent of black bear harvest mortality.     

Predator,prey and humans in a mountainous area: loss of biological diversity leads to trouble

Large carnivore-human coexistence is a challenging issue in wildlife conservation worldwide. An adequate and diverse prey spectrum favours carnivore persistence. Prey depletion and habitat loss elicit conflict with humans and require sound conservation measures. We evaluated the conflict between common leopards and humans in a densely populated Himalayan forest area of Pakistan. In two decades, the local forests decreased at an average rate of 65.5 ha/year (6.6%), with a concomitant increase in areas covered by human settlements (81.5%) and agricultural lands (15.4%). Ranging movements of a GPS/GSM-radiotagged male leopard over 16 months encompassed an area inhabited by c. 124,000 people. Livestock dominated the leopard’s diet (absolute frequency of occurrence: 80%), while wild ungulates were rarely eaten (absolute occurrence: 22%). Domestic goats were the most frequent diet item (61%), followed by domestic dogs (12%) and Bos spp. (6%). Wild prey included canids, small carnivores, rhesus monkeys, small mammals and gallinaceous birds. Socioeconomic implications of human-leopard coexistence were investigated: 18.5% of the households interviewed (N?=?1016) suffered livestock depredation by leopards, with an overall loss of 123 USD/km²/year, in an area of 328 km². In the first c. 15 years of this century, about 2 attacks to humans/year were recorded, half of which were lethal, whereas c. 6 leopards/year were killed in retaliation. The common leopard is ‘critically endangered’ in Pakistan mainly because of habitat loss and concurrent prey depletion. To increase the long-term survival of leopards and mitigate human-carnivore conflicts, priority should be given to restoration of a diverse natural prey assembly and protection of forest habitats, together with improved livestock management practices and livestock compensation. The latter will require a sustainable financial mechanism.     

The effect of anthropogenic features on the habitat selection of a large carnivore is conditional on sex and circadian period,suggesting a landscape of coexistence

Improving coexistence between humans and large predators is one of the foremost issues for the survival of large carnivores, especially in the Neotropics, where conflicts for retaliation are still frequent. This problem was increased due to the expansion of agricultural areas, settlements, roads, and the loss of natural habitats. Therefore, a key component in the long-term conservation of carnivores is to reduce animal-human conflicts. We aimed to assess multi-scale habitat selection models, exploring specificities in the selection for each sex and variation for the circadian period. We found that jaguars live in real landscapes of fear with high human and livestock density, where the perception of risk related to humans governed the selection of their resources. However, depending on the sex of individuals and the circadian period, jaguars positively selected some anthropic structures, such as areas of crops and human settlements. This selection suggested an aptitude to use various human-dominated structures and indicated jaguars could locally perceive risks in different ways, depending of sex and day period. Unexpectedly, jaguars presented attraction to roads, sexual or circadian related, regardless of the natural environments. Our results demonstrate that male and female jaguars could use some anthropic features differently in the distinct circadian periods. In addition, we conclude that the knowledge of the habitat selection for jaguars is a crucial component to the structure of the landscape of coexistence of this species and can give us efficient guidance to better comprehend the behavior through different scales of selection and through different periods of the day. Finally, our results show fundamental observations on the movement plasticity of this species for the construction of conservation plans focusing on the coexistence in different landscapes of the Neotropics dominated by humans.