Detection of Giardia in sewage effluent

Giardia sp. cysts were found at levels of 4,000-450,000/378,500 liters (100,000 gallons) in sewage effluents from three of seven sewage treatment plants in Sangamon County, Illinois, in June, July, and August 1981. Effluent from the positive plants is discharged into Lake Springfield (the present source of the city of Springfield's water supply) or the Sangamon River.     

Development of toxicity tolerant water hyacinth (Eichhornea crassipes) for effective treatment of raw sewage

Pioneering research efforts in the handling of municipal sewage in developing countries have involved the use of water hyacinth (Eichhornea crassipes) to purify sewage for possible re-use of the effluent water for domestic purposes. The ability of water hyacinth to remove pollution from raw sewage has been found to be impaired by sewage toxicity. Trials were therefore carried out to adapt water hyacinth to toxicity and thereby increase its ability to remove pollutants from raw sewage. The plants were adapted using an active bio-degrader consisting of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella ozaenae, Klebsiella edwardsiella and Baccillus subtilis. The adaptation progressed through 20, 40, 60 and 80% sewage dilution until plants capable of growth in 100% raw sewage were obtained. Plants were observed for morphological growth and at four weeks, samples were collected for tissue analysis. The plants progressively absorbed nutrients from sewage up to the fourth week, when signs of toxicity were obsereved through wilting, loss of turgidity and reduction in leaf number. However, plants that survived through a series of adaptations under various sewage dilutions exhibited luxuriant growth on raw sewage. In synergy with the active bio-degrader, the efficiency of the adapted water hyacinth to remove pollutants (nutrients) from raw sewage was enhanced by 93%.     

Diversity and population structure of sewage‐derived microorganisms in wastewater treatment plant influent

The release of untreated sewage introduces non‐indigenous microbial populations of uncertain composition into surface waters. We used massively parallel 454 pyrosequencing of hypervariable regions in rRNA genes to profile microbial communities from eight untreated sewage influent samples of two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in metropolitan Milwaukee. The sewage profiles included a discernible human faecal signature made up of several taxonomic groups including multiple Bifidobacteriaceae, Coriobacteriaceae, Bacteroidaceae, Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae genera. The faecal signature made up a small fraction of the taxa present in sewage but the relative abundance of these sequence tags mirrored the population structures of human faecal samples. These genera were much more prevalent in the sewage influent than standard indicators species. High‐abundance sequences from taxonomic groups within the Beta‐ and Gammaproteobacteria dominated the sewage samples but occurred at very low levels in faecal and surface water samples, suggesting that these organisms proliferate within the sewer system. Samples from Jones Island (JI – servicing residential plus a combined sewer system) and South Shore (SS – servicing a residential area) WWTPs had very consistent community profiles, with greater similarity between WWTPs on a given collection day than the same plant collected on different days. Rainfall increased influent flows at SS and JI WWTPs, and this corresponded to greater diversity in the community at both plants. Overall, the sewer system appears to be a defined environment with both infiltration of rainwater and stormwater inputs modulating community composition. Microbial sewage communities represent a combination of inputs from human faecal microbes and enrichment of specific microbes from the environment to form a unique population structure.     

Studies on the occurrence of tomato bushy stunt virus in English rivers

Tomato bushy stunt virus (TBSV) of unknown source was isolated from water of the River Thames, near Oxford. The isolate designated TBSV-T was mechanically transmissible to several tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) cvs and to other species including Petunia hybrida, pepper (Capsicum annuum). eggplant (Solanum melongena), Nicotiana clevelandii, Chenopodium amaranticolor and C. quinoa in which it caused systemic symptoms. It caused no infection of globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus) or Pelargonium domesticum. The virus was not adsorbed to soil and could be isolated from leachate of soil in which systemically-infected tomato or C. quinoa plants were grown. Tomato plants became infected when grown in soil watered with virus suspensions. TBSV-T was infective after 10 min at 80°C but not at 90°C and when diluted to 10^-5 but not to 10^-6. Purified virus preparations contained C. 30 nm isometric particles. In gel-diffusion serological tests, TBSV-T reacted with homologous anti-serum and with antiserum to petunia asteroid mosaic virus but not to pelargonium leaf curl virus. Seed-borne infection (50–65%) of TBSV was demonstrated in plants grown from seed of symptomlessly-infected tomato fruit. TBSV was isolated from symptomlessly-infected tomato fruit imported from Morocco during October-April 1981. One of the isolates (TBSV-M) was indistinguishable from TBSV-T in host range, symptomatology and serological reactions. TBSV was also found in tomato plants growing extraneously in primary settlement beds at sewage works; such plants having been derived from undigested seeds in sewage. Because of its ‘alimentary-resistance’ in man, it is possible that one ecological route whereby TBSV enters rivers is by man's consumption of TBSV-infected tomatoes and eventual sewage dispersal into rivers.     

A Preliminary Canadian Environmental Emissions Inventory for Endogenous and Retail Pharmaceutical Estrogens

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), including estrogen pharmaceuticals, have been an environmental concern for well more than a decade, but no environmental emissions inventory for Canada has yet been published. Endogenous estrogens cannot be distinguished from the equivalent pharmaceutical estrogens in the environment. Therefore, data were compiled to estimate total environmental emissions of endogenous and retail pharmaceutical estrogens by the Canadian population for year 2007. Approximately 1,700 kg of pharmaceutical estrogens were dispensed through retail pharmacies in Canada in 2007. Of this amount, total environmental emissions were estimated to be approximately 730 kg, half to surface water via municipal sewage outfalls (> 90% via sewage treatment plants providing primary, secondary, or tertiary treatment), and half to the soil vadose zone and (potentially) groundwater via in situ sewage treatment systems. Approximately 960 kg of endogenous estrogens were excreted by the Canadian population, with about 420 kg reaching the environment, again approximately half to each of surface water and soil/groundwater. In situ sewage treatment may deliver an equivalent load of estrogens to the environment as do sewage treatment plants, despite servicing only 22% of the Canadian population.     

Ecophysiological Responses of Plants After Sewage Sludge Compost Applications

Composting is one of the most appropriate methods to recycle sewage sludge. Sewage sludge compost is a suitable solution for improving the quality of barren soil at landfill. Therefore, it is important to investigate the effects of sewage sludge compost on plants. Different compost application methods (mixing and scattering over reclaimed soil) on sawtooth oak (Quercus acutissima) and Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora) have been tested. The application of sewage sludge compost markedly increased soil moisture and nitrogen content. Compost treatments resulted in significant increases in both plant height and biomass as compared to controls. Compost treatments led to a significant increase in the N content of plant leaves. Compost treatments resulted in significant increases in the chlorophyll content and photosynthetic rates of the plants. The scattering of compost over reclaimed soil (compost 2) resulted in lower total antioxidant activity and superoxide dismutase activity than mixing the compost with the reclaimed soil (compost 1), or in the control treatment. Since the growth rates, N content, and photosynthetic rates in compost 2 treatment were not markedly different from compost 1 treatment, it (compost 2) would be a better application method from both an ecological and economic perspective.     

Chironomid midge sensitization in sewage workers: case study

Non‐biting chironomid midges (Diptera: Chironomidae) may cause sensitization and allergic reactions in humans and have recently been identified as a potential health problem in Swedish municipal sewage treatment plants. To investigate, on a pilot scale, the allergenic potential of chironomids in sewage workers, all workers (n = 8) at a sewage treatment plant and local controls (n = 16) completed a symptom questionnaire, underwent measurement of the fraction of nitric oxide in exhaled air, spirometry, and provided serum samples for the determination of atopy status and the prevalence of specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies against Chironomus thummi (Chi t) using a commercial fluorescence enzyme immunoassay (FEIA). Three sewage workers (38%) but no controls (0%) were FEIA positive for C. thummi‐specific IgE antibodies (P < 0.05). No other health‐related findings were significantly different between the groups. The study suggested that occupational exposure to Chironomids may cause sensitization with circulating IgE‐antibodies in sewage workers.     

Phytoextraction of heavy metals from municipal sewage sludge by Rosa multiflora and Sida hermaphrodita

The aim of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of the multiflora rose var. “Jatar” (Rosa multiflora Thunb. ex Murray) and the Virginia fanpetals (Sida hermaphrodita Rusby) to phytoextract heavy metals from municipal sewage sludge. The 6-year field experiment involved four levels of fertilization with sewage sludge at doses of 0, 10, 20, 40, and 60 Mg DM (Dry Mass) sludge ha^?1. The increasing doses of sewage sludge were found to significantly increase the yield of multiflora rose and Virginia fanpetals biomass. They also significantly increased the content of heavy metals in these plants. The highest uptake of heavy metals by the multiflora rose and Virginia fanpetals crops was recorded at the fertilization dose of 60 Mg DM ? ha^?1. Our investigations show that the Virginia fanpetals was more efficient in the phytoextraction of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Cd from the sewage sludge than the multiflora rose, due to the greater yields and higher heavy metal uptake by the former plant. In turn, the multiflora rose phytoextracted greater amounts of Pb from the sewage sludge. The analyses indicate that the Virginia fanpetals can be used for phytoremediation (phytoextraction) of heavy metals contained in sewage sludge.     

Study of Domestic Sewage Waste Treatment by the Polychaetes,Neanthes japonica and Perinereis nuntia var. vallata,on an Artificial Tidal Flat

In order to establish a new biological method of treating sewage waste, mass cultures of the polychaete annelids, Neanthes japonica and Perinereis nuntia var. vallata, were employed. These species are known to ingest a large quantity of sewage sludge extracted from domestic sewage treatment plants. During this study, laboratory experiments were carried out to determine the effects of changes in various environmental factors on sludge consumption and growth. A pilot plant with an artificial tidal flat simulating natural estuarine tidal flat conditions was constructed and operated as a habitat for the polychaetes. The suitability of this artificial tidal flat for the treatment of sewage waste was discussed.     

A new strain of Desulfovibrio gigas isolated from a sewage plant

Summary A new strain of Desulfovibrio gigas was isolated from sludge of a sewage plant. The medium contained ethanol, sulfate, minerals, some vitamins but no source of combined nitrogen. Several enrichment cultures of sulfate reducers could be obtained by employing the method to sludge samples from various sewage plants. With respect to their morphology, the dominating bacteria were of the Desulfovibrio gigas type.     

Effects of Municipal Sewage Sludge Doses on the Chlorophyll Contents and Heavy Metal Concentration of Sugar Beet (Beta vulgaris var. saccharifera)

The present study was conducted to assess the suitability of sewage sludge amendment (SSA) in soil for Beta vulgaris var. saccharifera (sugar beet) by evaluating the heavy metal accumulation and physiological responses of plants grown at a 10%, 25%, and 50% sewage sludge amendment rate. The sewage sludge amendment was modified by the physicochemical properties of soil, thus increasing the availability of heavy metals in the soil and consequently increasing accumulation in plant parts. Cd, Pb, Ni, and Cu concentrations in roots were significantly higher in plants grown at 25% as compared to 50% SSA; however, Cr and Zn concentration was higher at 50% than 25% SSA. The concentrations of heavy metal showed a trend of Zn > Ni > Cu > Cr > Pb > Cd in roots and Zn > Cu > Ni > Cr > Pb > Cd in leaves. The only instance in which the chlorophyll content did not increase after the sewage sludge treatments was 50%. There were approximately 1.12-fold differences between the control and 50% sewage sludge application for chlorophyll content. The sewage sludge amendment led to a significant increase in Pb, Cr, Cd, Cu, Zn, and Ni concentrations of the soil. The heavy metal accumulation in the soil after the treatments did not exceed the limits for the land application of sewage sludge recommended by the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). The increased concentration of heavy metals in the soil due to the sewage sludge amendment led to increases in heavy metal uptake and the leaf and root concentrations of Ni, Zn, Cd, Cu, Cr, Pb, and Zn in plants as compared to those grown on unamended soil. More accumulation occurred in roots and leaves than in shoots for most of the heavy metals. The concentrations of Cd, Cr, and Pb were more than the permissible limits of national standards in the edible portion of sugar beet grown on different sewage sludge amendment ratios. The study concludes that the sewage sludge amendment in the soil for growing sugar beet may not be a good option due to risk of contamination of Cr, Pb, and Cd.     

NUTRITIONAL STUDIES OF TWO RED ALGAE. I. GROWT RATE AS A FUNCTION OF NITROGEN SOURCE AND CONCENTRATION1

Gracilaria foliifera (Forsskal) Borgesen and Neoagardhiella bailiyi (Harvey ex Kiitzing) Wynne & Taylor were grown in continuous-flow culture under controlled environmental conditions in 15 liter experimental chambers. Growth rate was related to the source and concentration of nitrogen enrichment supplied to the plants, Growth rate appeared to follow saturation-type nutrient uptake kinetics for plants receiving ammonium, nitrate, urea of sewage effluent enrichments. Ammonium enrichment produced higher growth rates than nitrate of sewage enrichment. The lowest growth rates occurred in the chambers receiving unenriched seawater or urea. The low estimated constants (K) for growth were in the range of 0.2–0.4 (M N for all N enrichments examined. The low estimated values of K compare closely with those found for microalgae and indicate that both species possess the ability to utilize very low concentrations of N.     

Assessment of Hazardous and Essential Elements in a Food Crop Irrigated with Municipal Sewage Water: Risk Appraisal for Public Health

To assess the impact of sewage water on metal accretion in selected diverse varieties of wheat (i.e., Lasani-2008, ARRI-10, Faisalabad-83, Punjab-85, Aas-2010, and Sehar-2006), their seeds were sown in pots containing soil. The results showed that the concentration of heavy metals in grains from the wheat plants supplied with sewage water was considerably higher than the plants supplied with canal irrigation water (control). In canal water irrigated wheat grains the metal concentrations (mg/kg) ranged from 2.20–3.5 for Cu, 12.50–32.4 for Zn, 22.45–35.22 for Mn, 0.05–0.15 for Pb, 0.012–0.029 for Cd, 2.5–5.3 for Ni, 18.16–29.63 for Fe, and 0.90–3.64 for Cr in different wheat varieties, whereas the wheat grains raised from sewage water, had metal concentrations (mg/kg): 3.8–5.30 for Cu, 29.60–40.50 for Zn, 32.9–50.40 for Mn, 1.14–7.50 for Pb, 0.26–0.42 for Cd, 3.90–7.55 for Ni, 32.21–40.35 for Fe, and 2.88–7.84 for Cr. Since these metals bioaccumulate in wheat grains with unremitting use of metal-enriched wastewater, care has to be taken for irrigating wheat plants with household wastewater for a longer time, particularly in those soils where this crop is grown regularly.     

Calcium and Magnesium Levels in Agricultural Soil and Sewage Sludge in an Industrial Area from Southeastern Spain: Relationship with Plant (Saccharum officinarum) Disposition

This investigation was initiated to assess the following objectives: (1) to measure the total calcium and magnesium content in agricultural soil and sewage sludge from the Mediterranean coastal area of Motril (southeastern Spain); (2) to determine the pH values of indicated samples in order to evaluate first their influence on calcium and magnesium content, and second on levels of these minerals in the main crop (sugar cane: Saccharum officinarum) grown in the area; (3) to study the influence of industrial activities, first on calcium and magnesium cantents and pH values in agricultural soil, and second on calcium and magnesium concentrations present in sugar cane samples; (4) to check if the calcium and magnesium levels existing in agricultural soil exert any influence on corresponding element uptake by sugar cane plants. Calcium levels found in agricultural soil were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those found in sewage sludge. Significant linear relationships between calcium and magnesium concentrations in agricultural soil and sewage sludge (p < 0.005) were found. Calcium concentrations found in soil from the industrialized area (39.2 ± 7.2 mg g^?1) were significantly higher than those corresponding to the non-industrialized area (31.0 ± 6.6 mg g^?1). The pH values determined in agricultural soil were significantly influenced by industrial activity (p < 0.05). The industrial activity and pH values measured in agricultural soil did not statistically influence either calcium or magnesium levels in the sugar cane plants. Calcium and magnesium concentrations existing in agricultural soil did not significantly influence the element uptake by sugar cane plants.     

Indexes of assessing N availability in sewage sludges

Biological and chemical methods were used in an attempt to estimate N availability in sewage sludges. The two biological methods, i.e. maize plants grown in pots, and soil-sludge mixtures incubated at 2, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 16 weeks, and the four chemical methods, i.e. autoclave, 0.5 M KMnO₄, pepsin and 0.6 M HCl, were compared to determine N availability in twelve sewage sludges in a given soil. In the mineralization test, the aerobically treated sewage sludges gave higher mineralization rates than the anaerobically treated wastes. The simple correlation between available N, estimated from the plant N uptake during 6 weeks and N extracted by chemical methods showed that HCl and pepsin appeared to be the better single indexes. Prediction of availability of N in sewage sludges to plants in the growth chamber improved if N mineralized during the incubation period and extracted by several chemical methods were combined in a multiple regression analysis.     

Effect of sewage wastewater treated byNostoc muscorum andAnabaena subcylindrica on the growth ofZea mays andPhaseolus vulgaris

Zea mays (Sakha 321 ) andPhaseolus vulagris (Giza 6) were irrigated with sewage wastewater treated withNostoc muscorum andAnabaena subcylindrica. The results showed that irrigation of plants by untreated or treated wastewater caused stimulation in the measured growth parameters of both plants. In addition pigmentation as well as protein and carbohydrate contents were stimulated. This stimulation was attributed to the presence of high levels of essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matters in wastewater. On the other side, there was a slight inhibitory effect of wastewater on some measured growth parameters of the plants. This effect may be due to the presence of some heavy metals in wastewater.     

Can Organic Amendments Be Useful in Transforming a Mediterranean Shrubland into a Dehesa?

Transforming a shrubland into a dehesa system may be useful for recovering certain productive and regulatory functions of ecosystems such as grazing potential, soil erosion control, and also for reducing the risk of wildfire. However, the productivity of the herbaceous cover and tree development in the transformed system may be limited by soil fertility, especially after wildfire events. Previous studies have shown that adequate doses of sewage sludge may improve soil fertility and facilitate plant recovery, but few studies have focused on plant biodiversity assessment. Here, we compare the effects of sewage sludge that has undergone different post‐treatments (dewatering, composting, or thermal drying) as a soil amendment used to transform a fire‐affected shrubland into a dehesa, on tree growth and pasture composition (vegetation cover, species richness, and diversity). In the short term, sewage sludge causes changes in both pasture cover and tree growth. Although no major differences in vegetation species richness and composition have been detected, fertilization using sewage sludge was shown to modify the functional diversity of the vegetation community. Rapid replacement of shrubs by herbaceous cover and ruderal plants (e.g. Bromus hordeaceus and Leontodon taraxacoides) and of the three grass species sown (Festuca arundinacea, Lolium perenne, and Dactylis glomerata) was observed, whereas N‐fixing species (leguminous) tended to be more abundant in nonfertilized soils and soils amended with composted sludge. These results indicate that sewage sludge modifies the functionality of vegetation when applied to soils, and that the response varies according to the treatment that the sludge has undergone.     

Increased death of new leaves of coastal banksia (Banksia integrifolia L.f) around ocean sewage outfall sites

Abstract Salt‐spray damage to coastal vegetation is a worldwide phenomenon. Worsening of such damage by surfactants present in sewage disposed of at sea has been observed in Europe and on trees planted around metropolitan beaches in Australia. Whether adverse impacts of sewage occur on the more widespread native vegetation around non‐metropolitan outfalls in Australia is unknown. The present study investigated the survivorship of existing leaves, and of new shoots and leaves, on Banksia integrifolia around three outfall and three non‐outfall sites in spring/summer of 1997‐1998. Survivorship of existing leaves was almost identical at outfall and non‐outfall sites. When plants initiated new shoots over the spring/summer, plants at outfall sites initiated more than plants at non‐outfall sites; but the proportion of these new shoots lost subsequently differed little between outfall and non‐outfall sites. Survivorship of newly initiated leaves on the new shoots differed between outfall and non‐outfall sites, with 65% of the new leaves on average being lost at outfall sites, and 47% being lost at non‐outfall sites by the end of summer. The probability of observing a difference of this magnitude ranged between P= 0.057 and 0.11 (February‐April 1998). This is the first report of a possible adverse impact on an Australian native plant from sewage discharged to the ocean.     

Distribution of ribonucleic acid coliphages in raw sewage from treatment plants in Japan.

To determine the transmission cycle of ribonucleic acid (RNA) coliphages in their natural habitats, we investigated the distribution patterns of RNA phages in raw sewage collected from treatment plants in various localities in Japan. Most of the sewage samples contained group II and III phages. Samples from treatment plants in Sapporo, Tokyo, and Toyama contained appreciable amounts of group I phages in addition to the group II and III phages. As a whole, raw sewage from treatment plants in Japan contained RNA phages of the three groups in the ratio 1:2:5, group I/II/III. Based on the distribution patterns of RNA phages in sewage from domestic drainage in Japan proper (group II/III, 3:1), in animal feces and sewage from slaughter houses (mostly group I), and in human feces (group II/III, 1:1), it can be reasonably said that group I phages tend to be introduced from animal sources and group II and III phages tend to be introduced from human sources. Raw sewage from treatment plants in Japan consists mainly of human feces, sewage from domestic drainage, and industrial wastewater, and, in part, from slaughter houses. In fact, sewage from slaughter houses together with that from human sources flowed into the treatment plants of Tokyo as far as we could confirm.     

Effect of wastewater discharge on nutrient contamination of mangrove soils and plants

The ecological impact of sewage discharges to a mangrove wetland in Futian National Nature Reserve, the People's Republic of China was assessed by comparing the plant community, plant growth and nutrient status of soils and vegetation of a site treated with settled municipal wastewater (Site A) with those of a control adjacent site (Site B) which did not receive sewage. During the one year study, the total and available N and P, and organic carbon concentrations of mangrove soils in Site A did not significantly differ from those of Site B. In both sites, the soil organic C, total N, NH₄ ^}-N and total P content exhibited a descending trend from landward to seaward regions, with the lowest measurements obtained from the most foreshore location. Seasonal variation in N content of soil samples was more obvious than any difference between wastewater treated and the control sites. The soil N content was lower in spring and summer. This was attributed to the higher temperature in these seasons which facilitated degradation of organic matter and absorption of nitrogen by the plants for growth. No significant difference in plant community structure, plant growth (in terms of tree height and diameter) and biomass was found between Sites A and B. Leaf samples of the two dominant plant species, Kandelia candel and Aegiceras corniculatum collected from Site A had comparable content of organic carbon, N, P and K to those Site B. These preliminary results indicated that the discharge of a total volume of 2600 m³ municipal wastewater to an area of 1800 m² mangrove plants over the period of a year did not produce any apparent impact on growth of the plants. The soils and plant leaves of Site A were not contaminated, in terms of nutrient content, by the discharged sewage.