Using suitable projects in adding value to nonwood forest products in The Philippines: The Copal (Agathis Philippinensis) trade in Palawan

Using Suitable Projects in Adding Value to Nonwood Forest Products in the Philippines: The Copal (Agathis philippinensis)Trade in Palawan. Economic Botany 58(3):476-485, 2004. The Philippines is a country that has little low-forest cover left, but it still has many useful forest species. Despite the decline of forest area and the degradation of forests, many of the poorest households, both indigenous and migrant, are pushed into the remaining forest area and depend on forest goods for their subsistence and monetary income. These goods are inevitably nonwood forest products (NWFPs) because timber extraction is now illegal in many parts of the country. The extraction of nonwood forest products, such as resin and rattan, is the only source of a cash income for many households. However, despite the long tradition of NWFP extraction in forest-edge villages, the income that collectors get from these products is still minimal. The impediments to a more equitable and efficient trade in NWFPs are examined, and possible ways of adding value locally to NWFPs are presented, using almaciga (Agathis philippinensis) resin extraction as a case study.     

Copal and rattan collecting in the Philippines

Minor forest products such as rattan and Manila copal have long been an important source of cash income for indigenous forest collectors in Southeast Asia. Focusing on the Tagbanua of Palawan Island in the Philippines, the history and economic significance of forest collecting in the region are described. The paper also documents the growing scarcity of forest products in Palawan and discusses several policy options intended to help preserve rattan and copal resources.

     

Implications of Livelihood Dependence on Non-Timber Products in Peruvian Amazonia

The present and future well-being of the world’s forest dwelling populations depends on their ability to gain livelihood resources from their immediate environment. Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products has been promoted by conservationists and development agencies as a feasible strategy for forest dwellers that does not compromise the resource base. Yet surveys of actual resource use suggest that for poorer resource-dependent communities without access to markets, non-timber forest products can only ever represent a safety-net activity and a supplementary income source. Others argue that resource availability, in terms of the diversity and productivity of the forest, is the key parameter in realizing a contribution of forest products to well-being. This paper examines the scope and heterogeneity of forest product use to reveal whether resource availability necessarily provides the context for significant contributions to well-being of forest dwellers. We present data from an area of tropical rainforest, close to Iquitos in Peru, which was previously shown to have high potential value. We find, through a census survey of households within a forest reserve area, that non-timber forest products provide only a relatively small portion of income and that only a small proportion of available products are actually commercialized, despite apparent market availability. We show that the low rates of commercialization can be explained by unequal access capital assets used for extraction, to natural resources themselves, and to product markets. They are also explained by the concentration of capital-poor households on subsistence gathering activities. The value of destructive uses of forests, both logging and agriculture, remain higher than returns from non-timber products. This research demonstrates that although non-timber forest products are an important livelihood source, market integration and commercialization is not everywhere an appropriate or realistic strategy.     

Influence of diversity and road access on palm extraction at landscape scale in SE Ecuador

The relationship between biodiversity and the activities of small-scale farmers remains poorly understood despite its importance for conservation. In tropical forest areas farmers often include extraction of forest products in their subsistence strategies, and it has been suggested that factors such as market access and diversity levels influence people’s use of forest products. To investigate these relationships, we studied the use of palms in five villages inhabited by colonists and indigenous Shuar in the lower montane forest in south-eastern Ecuador by means of interviews and line transects around the villages. We found that use of palms was not driven by the diversity of palms available in the forest surrounding each village. Instead, the most important factor seemed to be lack of market access so in villages furthest away from the nearest road people used more palm products for their subsistence life compared to villages closer to the road. Forests around more remote villages had higher utility levels when evaluated on the basis of the villagers’ use of palms, despite lower levels of palm diversity and richness in these forests. The lower diversity levels may reflect past human activity or ecological factors, or a combination of both. In either case, our results show that forests with higher diversity levels are not necessarily more valuable to local people compared to less diverse forests. Instead, socio-economic factors such as market access may be more important in shaping people’s relationship with the natural environment.     

Nontimber forest product gathering in Ritigala forest (Sri Lanka): Household strategies and community differentiation

Sri Lanka has a long tradition of forest product use. The relationship of people with a dry zone forest was studied using a sample of 48 households in two villages that varied in distance to the forest and access to the market. All households interviewed collected subsistence forest products and a majority of them also collected commercial products. The daily peak-season income from commercial gathering was 4.5 to 7.7 times the daily labor wage. There is a strong gender specialization, with commercial gathering dominated by men whereas subsistence gathering is almost exclusively the task of women. The average forest-derived household income in the village closer to the forest and with better market access was nearly double that of the other village. Family size as a proxy of labor availability was the main discriminating factor between those households who did and those who did not gather commercial products. A small inverse relationship between forest gathering and size of household agricultural land (particularly paddy rice) was observed. No clear relationship was found between total household income and forest derived income, contradicting the view that commercial forest gathering is an exclusive activity of the poorest households.     

Urban Forest Justice and the Rights to Wild Foods, Medicines, and Materials in the City

Urban forests are multifunctional socio-ecological landscapes, yet some of their social benefits remain poorly understood. This paper draws on ethnographic evidence from Seattle, Washington to demonstrate that urban forests contain nontimber forest products that contribute a variety of wild foods, medicines, and materials for the wellbeing of urban residents. We show that gathering wild plants and fungi in urban forests is a persistent subsistence and livelihood practice that provides sociocultural and material benefits to city residents, and creates opportunities for connecting with nature and enhancing social ties. We suggest that an orientation toward human-nature interactions in cities that conceptualizes the gathering of forest products as a legitimate social benefit may support and expand urban forest justice. Urban forest justice recognizes the rights of local people to have control over their own culturally appropriate wild food and health systems, including access to natural resources and to the decision-making processes affecting them.     

Socioeconomic determinants of cultivation of non-wood forest products in southern Nigeria

Cultivation of non-wood forest products (NWFP), although a veritable means of ecosystem and biodiversity conservation and improved natural resource management, has not been sustained in southern Nigeria (Nigeria’s major forest region) notwithstanding the unprecedented rate of depletion of the resource in the wild. For example, efforts in the past to support cultivation of NWFP in southern Nigeria under a USAID funded Cross River State forestry project, especially through nursery establishment for some rural communities, was not sustained as the initiative was abandoned by the participants. Hence to promote cultivation of NWFP, this study ascertained socioeconomic factors that influence cultivation of NWFPs. Multi stage sampling technique was used in selection of respondents (households) from two States: Cross River and Enugu States of southern Nigeria. A sample size of 400 households was used for the study. Probit and multinomial logistic regressions were used in estimating NWFP cultivation. The findings show that cultivation of NWFP was positively determined by gender, farming occupation (especially of women farmers) distance to forests where NWFP was collected, proportion of household food from NWFP, and medium wealth category. Age had a negative effect on cultivation until the age of 46 after which the effect became positive. In addition, household size, gender and farming occupation of household heads positively influenced cultivation of NWFP in plantations as against home gardens while gender and farming occupation had positive effect on cultivation of some stands of NWFP as against home gardens. Incorporating the findings of this study in future intervention project for NWFP cultivation will help sustain the initiative.     

MICROALGAE AND CYANOBACTERIA: FOOD FOR THOUGHT1

In non‐Western civilizations, cyanobacteria have been part of the human diet for centuries. Today, microalgae and cyanobacteria are either produced in controlled cultivation processes or harvested from the natural habitats and marketed as food supplements around the world. Cyanobacteria produce a vast array of different biologically active compounds, some of which are expected to be used in drug development. The fact that some of the active components from cyanobacteria potentially have anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti‐inflammatory, and other effects is being used for marketing purposes. However, introduction of these products in the form of whole biomass for alimentary purposes raises concerns regarding the potential toxicity and long‐term effects on human health. Here, we review data on the use of cyanobacteria and microalgae in human nutrition and searched for available information on legislature that regulates the use of these products. We have found that, although the quality control of these products is most often self‐regulated by the manufacturers, different governmental agencies are introducing strict regulations for placing novel products, such as algae and cyanobacteria, on the market. The existing regulations require these products to be tested for the presence of toxins, such as microcystin; however, other, sometimes novel, toxins remain undetected, and their long‐term effects on human health remain unknown.     

Role of non-timber forest products in the economy of peripheral communities of knuckles national wilderness area of Sri Lanka: A farming systems approach

The Knuckles range of forests has been identified as a unique biological resource in Sri Lanka with much biodiversity. It is also important as a watershed which feeds the Mahaweli reservoir system. Having considered the present hazardous land-use practices such as cardamum production and shifting cultivation, the Knuckles range has been declared a national wilderness area. The Forest Department is in the process of preparing the management plan for the area. There are about 48 villages in the vicinity of the forest. This study attempts to estimate the composition of income in the peripheral communities, ticularly the extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFP) from this range of forests. Data were collected using structured questionnaires from 60 households in three villages in the vicinity of the forest. The rural economy is described using a farming systems approach and the net income contributed by each activity in the farming system was estimated. Results show that nine components of the farming system use resources from the village and the forest, with at least 47 plant species used by the villagers for different purposes. Cardamum production and shifting cultivation contribute significantly to the total income of the household, but the majority of households in the study depend upon forest resources to supply some portion of their income. Nevertheless, the monetary value of the annual income generated by NTFP is much lower than income from either cardamum production or shifting cultivation. If cardamum production and shifting cultivation are to be restricted under the conservation program, there could be additional pressure put on NTFP. Therefore, we suggest a study of the natural regen-eration capacity of selected NTFP; such information should be used in finalizing the management plan in the Knuckles range of forests.     

REDD Policy Impacts on Indigenous Property Rights Regimes on Palawan Island, the Philippines

Several Southeast Asian states have been working feverishly to design and implement REDD policy frameworks to fulfil their commitment to global climate change mitigation. In doing so, state agencies will be challenged to design REDD plus policies that value and conserve forest carbon in ways that align with national policies and local priorities for managing forest landscapes defined by complex property rights regimes. However, as with other market-based policies, the expeditious delivery of REDD could bypass critical analysis of potential interactions with national tenure regimes, customary property rights, and local livelihoods. Drawing on the case of Palawan Island—a forested frontier island in the Philippines—we examine how nascent REDD policies can articulate with state sanctioned tenure, customary tenure, and forest uses in changing livelihood contexts. This paper draws on research among Tagbanua and Pala’wan people to illustrate how complex and changing tenure structures, commodity markets and livelihood dynamics may influence how REDD plus interventions affect indigenous customary lands and forest use. We argue that the ability of indigenous forest users to maintain stored carbon and improve livelihoods is contingent upon the ‘socio-material’ form of carbon—a commodity defined in relation to the resources and social processes of which it is part.     

Molecular genetic tools to infer the origin of forest plants and wood

Most forest tree species exhibit high levels of genetic diversity that can be used to trace the origin of living plants or their products such as timber and processed wood. Recent progress to isolate DNA not only from living tissue but also from wood and wood products offers new opportunities to test the declared origin of material such as seedlings for plantation establishment or timber. However, since most forest tree populations are weakly differentiated, the identification of genetic markers to differentiate among spatially isolated populations is often difficult and time consuming. Two important fields of “forensic” applications are described: Molecular tools are applied to test the declared origin of forest reproductive material used for plantation establishment and of internationally traded timber and wood products. These applications are illustrated taking examples from Germany, where mechanisms have been developed to improve the control of the trade with forest seeds and seedlings, and from the trade with wood of the important Southeast Asian tree family Dipterocarpaceae. Prospects and limitations of the use of molecular genetic methods to conclude on the origin of forest plants, wood, and wood products are discussed.     

Estimations of the importance of plant resources extracted by inhabitants of the Peruvian Amazon flood plains

Extractions/applications of plant-resources were investigated in Mestizo communities in the Jenaro Herrera district, Peruvian Amazon. Knowledge differences between genders on forest resource uses were also examined. Two methods were applied: (1) a forest survey based on structured interviews of ten informants on potential uses of 334 pre-selected trees and lianas in permanent sample plots, and interviews of 20 male and female informants concerning potential uses of 85 trees and lianas; and (2) a household survey recording extracted materials in or near the dwellings of 73 families. The conclusions are: (i) most forest products are extracted from a limited number of species, whereas a large number of species is mentioned as important/potentially useful for identical purposes; (ii) coherence exists between extracted species and their abundance in easily accessible forest formations; (iii) knowledge of forest resources is gender correlated; and (iv) a combination of methods for collection of information on use and extraction of plant resources provides more detailed and profound results than using each method separately.     

Carbon balances of bioenergy systems using biomass from forests managed with long rotations: bridging the gap between stand and landscape assessments

Studies report different findings concerning the climate benefits of bioenergy, in part due to varying scope and use of different approaches to define spatial and temporal system boundaries. We quantify carbon balances for bioenergy systems that use biomass from forests managed with long rotations, employing different approaches and boundary conditions. Two approaches to represent landscapes and quantify their carbon balances – expanding vs. constant spatial boundaries – are compared. We show that for a conceptual forest landscape, constructed by combining a series of time‐shifted forest stands, the two approaches sometimes yield different results. We argue that the approach that uses constant spatial boundaries is preferable because it captures all carbon flows in the landscape throughout the accounting period. The approach that uses expanding system boundaries fails to accurately describe the carbon fluxes in the landscape due to incomplete coverage of carbon flows and influence of the stand‐level dynamics, which in turn arise from the way temporal system boundaries are defined on the stand level. Modelling of profit‐driven forest management using location‐specific forest data shows that the implications for carbon balance of management changes across the landscape (which are partly neglected when expanding system boundaries are used) depend on many factors such as forest structure and forest owners’ expectations of market development for bioenergy and other wood products. Assessments should not consider forest‐based bioenergy in isolation but should ideally consider all forest products and how forest management planning as a whole is affected by bioenergy incentives – and how this in turn affects carbon balances in forest landscapes and forest product pools. Due to uncertainties, we modelled several alternative scenarios for forest products markets. We recommend that future work consider alternative scenarios for other critical factors, such as policy options and energy technology pathways.     

Constraints and Opportunities for Sustainable Livelihoods and Cash Income Generation from NTFPs in the Mountains of Northern Parts of Pakistan

Pakistan′s forest resource base is mostly found in the mountains of the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) supporting the livelihood of the rural poor and providing different ecological services. The present study was, therefore, initiated with the aim to evaluate different constraints and opportunities for sustainable livelihoods and cash income generation from NTFPs in the mountainous area of NWFP, Pakistan during 2008. Information was collected through questionnaire and interviews during field trips. A total of 117 NTFPs species have been recorded which are being used locally for various purposes such as fuel wood, fodder, medicinal plants, vegetables, mushroom, agricultural tools making, furniture, thatching, shade, fencing/ poles, ornamental purpose and animal products. The majority of plants are multi-functional like Pinus wallichiana provides timber, firewood, torch wood, the leaves/small branches are used as thatch for roofing, split logs are used for fencing and the decomposed needles are collected as humus for agricultural fields. These products were widely used by the indigenous community supporting their livelihood. The study proposes protection and sustainable management of these valuable resources for rural livelihoods, which might be useful for developing regional strategies of sustainable management of forest resources.     

Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills,India. 1. Contribution to rural income

It is generally assumed that the sustained extraction and processing of non-timber forest products by local people can enhance their cash income and provide an alternative to tropical deforestation. However, the degree to which such products actually or may potentially contribute to rural incomes is poorly documented. We present the results of a study that seeks to evaluate the reliance of an indigenous group on non-timber forest products for cash income. Furthermore, we examine the effect of household variables on the cash income derived from collection and the price appreciation of non-timber forest products. These products account for nearly half of the gross annual income earned by the Soliga households in the Biligiri Rangan Hills of the Karnataka State in South India. Econometric models indicate that although income derived from the extraction of non-timber forest products is high in proportion to the time devoted to the collection, the extraction is not a preferred vocation. Furthermore, price appreciation for non-timber forest products varies for different products and, overall, the Soligas obtain essentially minimal wages for their extractive efforts. We discuss possible mechanisms for enhancement of Soligas’ income and the involvement of Soligas in conservation efforts.     

Diversity of plants in cocoa agroforests in the humid forest zone of Southern Cameroon

In the humid forest zone of Southern Cameroon, farmers generally associate cocoa with native and exotic trees in complex agroforestry systems. Despite the socio-economic and ecological importance of these systems, few studies have investigated their plant composition. We investigated tree composition of cocoa agroforests along a gradient of market access, population density and resource use intensity in the humid forest zone of southern Cameroon, comprising (i) the sub-region of Yaoundé, (ii) the sub-region of Mbalmayo, and (iii) the sub-region of Ebolowa. Market access, population density and resource use intensity all decreased from the first to the third sub-region. We quantified the diversity of tree species associated with cocoa within individual agroforests, among agroforests in the same region, and among the three sub-regions, and classified the tree species according to their main uses. A total of 9.1 ha belonging to 60 cocoa agroforests were inventoried in 12 villages. We encountered a total of 206 tree species with an average of 21 tree species per agroforest. In the more urbanized area around Yaoundé, agroforests were less diverse than in the other sub-regions. In all of the agroforests, food producing tree species tended to be more frequent than other species. Two thirds of the food trees were native forest species and one third was introduced. From Ebolowa to Yaoundé, the density of food producing trees doubled and the density of exotic food-producing species increased relative to native species. Some local species producing high-value non-timber forest products were found in the agroforests, but their density was far lower than that of exotic tree species. The agroforests also provide medicine, charcoal and other products for household consumption and sale. We conclude that unless there are specific efforts to promote local forest tree species in cocoa agroforests, these will progressively lose importance with increasing market access, population pressure and land use intensity.     

Collateral damage: impacts of ethno-civil strife on biodiversity and natural resource use near Indian nature reserves

Civil conflicts often affect the control of natural resources, altering their access and use. Using a combination of questionnaires, remote sensing, and a review of articles in the popular print media, we investigated the impact of a protracted armed conflict on forest loss, livelihoods, and forest use near two globally important tiger reserves in northeastern India. Over a 23 year period, we found evidence of large-scale forest loss in the vicinity of Nameri and Pakke Tiger Reserves. Nearly all (99 %) interviewees opined that the ethno-civil strife was to blame for declining forest cover. Most interviewees identified 1990 as the year of onset of strife-mediated deforestation. This is partially supported by a review of print-media articles that reported conflict, violence, displacement, and the onset of large-scale migration in the previous year. According to respondents, ethno-civil strife has radically altered access to, and use of forests, by resident communities (causing economic hardship, increased costs, and reduced availability of essential timber products), and has also accelerated forest loss and increased poaching. We conclude that forests and wildlife in these protected areas are at immediate risk from ethno-civil strife. Urgent interventions are needed to reduce the environmental and societal impacts of civil strife in this biologically crucial region of India.     

Role of non-timber forest products in a subsistence economy: The case of a joint forestry project in India

Non-timber forest products (NTFP) such as fuelwood, fodder, fruit, medicinal plants, and small timber are important to the rural poor in India. The traditional usufruct rights that the poor enjoyed have been gradually eroded by state control. This process has accelerated with increases in the prices of timber and industrial wood products. Non-timber forest products collected by the poor do not enter the system of national accounts, which results in the undervaluation of the forest wealth of the country. According to some estimates, the total demand for these products outstrips the sustainable yield of the forests in India. To ensure the best use of the forests, it is necessary for rural communities to share the responsibility of forest management with the forest departments. A proposed joint forestry project in South India is discussed as a case study of this innovative approach to forest management. Data on the existing patterns of NTFP extraction are presented to gain a better understanding of the role that these products play in the life of the rural poor. Policies from the case study are discussed in the concluding section.     

Valuation and sustainable use of tropical rainforest

Studies of the extraction of non-timber forest products have shown that the standing rainforest may be more valuable than alternatives involving deforestation

Although this article is about placing a value on rainforest, it begins by stressing the importance and value of rainforest for its environmental function, particularly for the control of world climate patterns. It is then shown how rainforest peoples depend on the plants around them and in some study areas were found to have a use for every tree on the one-hectare plots. It is therefore not surprising that the rainforest can contain many non-timber forest products (NTFPs) of commercial potential, some of which such as rubber latex and Brazil nuts have been in the market economy for many years. A summary is given of various attempts to place a value on rainforest for its NTFPs. Each of the three studies showed that the extraction of these products could be more valuable than alternative land uses involving deforestation. Various rainforest countries such as Brazil, Guatemala, and Indonesia have set up extractive reserves where local people are allowed to extract NTFPs but not to clear cut the forest. Extractive reserves have slowed down deforestation in some areas, but only provide a meagre subsistence existence for their inhabitants, so while they are useful, they are not a panacea that will solve all the conservation problems of tropical rainforest.