Control of Tylenchulus semipenetrans on Citrus With Aldicarb,Oxamyl, and DBCP

Soil application of DBCP (l,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane) and foliar applications of oxamyl (methyl N'',N''-dimethyl-N-[(methylcarbamoyl)oxy]-l-thiooxamimidate) were compared for control of Tylenchulus semipenetrans in a grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) orchard, DBCP reduced nematode populations and increased fruit growth rate, fruit size at harvest, and yield compared to the untreated controls in the 2 years following treatments. Foliar applications of oxamyl reduced nematode populations and increased fruit growth rate slightly the first year, but not in the second. Foliar applications of oxamyl did not improve control attained by DBCP alone. Soil application of aldicarb [2-methyl-2-(methylthio)propionaldehyde-O-(methylcarbamoyl)oxime] or DBCP to an orange (C. sinensis) orchard reduced T. semipenetrans populations in the 3 years tested and increased yield in 1 of 3 years. Aldicarb treatment reduced fruit damage caused by the citrus rust mite, Phyllocoptruta oleivora. Aldicarb, applied at 5.7 or 11.4 kg/ha, by disk incorporation or chisel injection, was equally effective in controlling nematodes, improving yields, fruit size, and external quality. In a grapefruit orchard, chisel-applied aldicarb reduced nematode populations and rust mite damage and increased yields in both years and increased fruit size in one year. The 11.4-kg/ha rate was slightly more effective than the 5.7-kg/ha rate. Aldicarb appears to be an adequate substitute for DBCP for nematode control in Texas citrus orchards and well-suited to an overall pest management system for Texas citrus.     

Preplant Fumigation for Citrus Nematode Control in Florida

Preplant soil fumigation experiments were conducted to control the citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans. Generally, D-D (1,3-dichloropropene, 1,2-dichloroptopane and related chlorinated C₃-hydrocarbons), Telone (1,3-dichloropropene and related chlorinated C₃-hydrocarbons), Telone PBC (80% 1,3-dichloropropene, 15% chloropicrin, 5% propargyl bromide), and EDB (ethylene dibromide) controlled T. semipenetrans effectively for 4 years. The trials involved four scion varieties, two rootstock varieties and three soil types. Tree growth and yield were increased with application of D-D at 374 or 561 liters/ha (40 or 60 gal/acre) or Telone at 299 or 449 liters/ha (32 or 48 gal/acre) in broadcast and strip treatments.     

Leaching Soluble Salts Increases Population Densities of Tylenchulus semipenetrans

The effect of salinity on population densities of Tylenchulus semipenetrans was measured on 3-month-old salt-tolerant Rangpur lime growing on either loamy sand, sand, or organic mix and on 4-month-old salt-sensitive Sweet lime in organic mix. Salinity treatments were initiated by watering daily with 25 mol/m³ NaCl + 3.3 mol/m³ CaCl₂ for 3 days and every other day with 50 mol/m³ NaC1 + 6.6 mol/m³ CaC1₂ for one week, with no salt (NS) treatments as controls. Salinity was discontinued in one treatment (DS) by leaching with tap water prior to inoculation with nematodes, whereas the continuous salinity (CS) treatment remained unchanged. Overall, in Rangpur lime organic soil supported the highest population densities of T. semipenetrans, followed by loamy sand and sand. The DS treatment resulted in the highest (P ≤ 0.05) mean population densities of T. semipenetrans in the three soil types. Similarly, the DS treatment in Sweet lime resulted in the highest (P ≤ 0.05) nematode populations. The DS treatment predisposed citrus to nematode infection through accumulated salt stress, whereas leaching soluble salt in soil solution offered nematodes a suitable nonosmotic habitat. Nematode females under the DS treatment also had the highest (P ≤ 0.05) fecundity.     

Interactions between Heterodera avenae and Pratylenchus neglectus on Wheat

In a long-term field experiment, differential population densities of Heterodera avenae were produced by frequent cropping with resistant (cv. Panema) or susceptible (cv. Peniarth) oat. The two oat cultivars were equally good hosts of Pratylenchus neglectus in a glass house experiment with field soil. On wheat crops grown after oats in field experiments, P. neglectus population densities in roots were higher in plots where H. avenae had been controlled than in plots with moderate infestations (40 H. avenae eggs/g soil). The field observations indicated that the reduction in population densities of P. neglectus coincided with the development in roots of sedentary stages of the cyst nematode. Evidence for an indirect effect of H. avenae on P. neglectus was found in vitro in a split-root experiment. In the same field, grain yields of two wheat cultivars susceptible or resistant to H. avenae, but both susceptible to P. neglectus, was not reduced by P. neglectus. Alternation of H. avenae resistant and susceptible cultivars is a possible way of exploiting the inverse relationship between these nematodes, whilst controlling cyst nematode -populations in intensive cereal production systems.     

Control of Globodera rostochiensis in Relation to Method of Applying Nematodes

Soaking potato tuber pieces for 15 min in 8,000 μg/ml of oxamyl just before planting reduced the number of Globodera rostochiensis cysts that developed on potato roots, but this treatment was phytotoxic. Five foliar applications of 1.12 kg a.i./ha of oxamyl or carbofuran at 10-day intervals beginning when 90% of the plants had emerged suppressed increase in G. rostochiensis densities. Similar foliar applications of phenamiphos were ineffective in controlling G. rostochiensis. Soil applications (in the row at planting) of aldicarb, carbofuran, phenamiphos, ethoprop, and oxamyl at 5.6 kg a.i./ha reduced the numbers of white females that developed on potato roots, but only those treatments involving aldicarb and oxamyl suppressed G. rostochiensis population increase. Combined soil and foliar treatments did not provide any advantage over soil treatment alone, as soil applications of 5.6 kg a.i./ha alone were equal to, or better than, combined soil (3.4 kg a.i./ha) and foliar (2.2 kg a.i./ha) applications in controlling G. rostochiensis.     

Infection of Citrus Roots by Tylenchulus semipenetrans Reduces Root Infection by Phytophthora nicotianae

Bioassays and whole-plant experiments were conducted to investigate the interaction between Tylenchulus semipenetrans and Phytophthora nicotianae. Both organisms are parasites of the citrus fibrous root cortex. Nematode-infected and non-infected root segments were excised from naturally infected field roots and placed on water agar in close proximity to agar plugs of P. nicotianae and then transferred to a Phytophthora-selective medium. At 10 and 12 days, 50% fewer nematode-infected segments were infected by P. nicotianae than non-infected segments. In whole-plant experiments in glass test tubes, sour orange seedlings were inoculated with two densities (8,000 or 80,000 eggs and second-stage juveniles) of T. semipenetrans, and after establishment of infection were inoculated with two densities (9,000 and 90,000 zoospores) of P. nicotianae. In the first experiment, fungal protein was 53% to 65% lower in the roots infected by both organisms than in roots infected by the fungus only. Compared to plants infected only by P. nicotianae, shoot weights were 33% to 50% greater (P ≤ 0.05) in plants infected by both parasites, regardless of inoculum density. Fibrous and tap root weights were 5% to 23% and 19% to 34% greater (P ≤ 0.05), respectively, in nematode-fungus combination treatments compared to the fungus alone. A second experiment was conducted, where plants were infected by the fungus, the nematode, both organisms, or neither organism. The soil mixture pH for 50% of the plants was adjusted from 4.5 to 7.0 to favor nematode infection. A higher rate of nematode infection of plants growing at pH 7.0 compared to pH 4.5 resulted in greater suppression of fungal development and greater inhibition of fungal damage to the plant. Compared to plants infected only by P. nicotianae, shoot and root weights were 37% and 33% greater (P ≤ 0.05), respectively, in plants infected by both parasites. These experiments have revealed antagonism between T. semipenetrans and P. nicotianae in citrus.     

Field Interrelationships among Heterodera glycines,Pratylenchus scribneri,and Three Other Nematode Species Associated with Soybean

Field experiments were conducted in 1982 and 1983 to assess interactions between Heterodera glycines and Pratylenchus scribneri on soybean in southern Illinois. Soybean cyst nematode susceptible cultivar Williams 79 and resistant cultivar Fayette were treated or not treated with aldicarb 15G. Initial population densities were 35 H. glycines cysts containing eggs, 100 P. scribneri, 30 Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus, 225 Paratylenchus projectus, and 85 Tylenchorhynchus martini per 250 cm³ soil in 1982, whereas in 1983 populations were 11 H. glycines cysts, 330 P. scribneri, and 620 H. pseudorobustus. In both years H. glycines populations increased on nontreated Williams 79, decreased on both treated and nontreated Fayette, and remained at initial levels on treated Williams 79. Recovery of P. scribneri per gram dry root was different between nontreated cultivars in 1982 but not in 1983. Aldicarb treatment suppressed soil and root populations of P. scribneri on both cultivars in both years. Populations of H. pseudorobustus, P. projectus, and T. martini at harvest indicated little population increase on either nontreated cultivar. In 1982 H. glycines caused yield suppression but P. scribneri did not, as differences in yield occurred between cultivars but not between aldicarb treatments. In 1983, however, there were no yield differences between cultivars, but aldicarb application resulted in yield increase in both cultivars. In 1983 the yield increase resulting from P. scribneri control was approximately 25%. No synergistic effect on yield was observed between H. glycines and P. scribneri.     

Population Changes of Tylenchulus semipenetrans Under Localized Versus Uniform Drought in the Citrus Root Zone

Population development of Tylenchulus semipenetrans in dry soil was investigated in a greenhouse study. Citrus seedlings were grown in sandy soil in vertical tubes with upper and lower sections. Nematode population densities in the upper tubes were measured at 16, 23, and 37 days, post-treatment. Three treatments consisted of i) irrigating both tubes when soil water potential reached -1 5 kPa (non-drought), ii) irrigating only the bottom tube (local drought), and iii) no irrigation (uniform drought). Soil water potential in the upper tubes did not differ under local and uniform drought during the first 16 days post-treatment, when it approached - 125 kPa. Thereafter, the water potential of soil under uniform drought continued to decrease, while that under local drought stabilized at approximately -150 kPa. Treatments had no consistent effects on female T. semipenetrans counts from soil or roots. However, after 37 days, numbers of eggs, juvenile, and male nematodes per gram of root under local drought were more than 2.4-fold greater than those under non-drought or uniform drought. Numbers of juvenile and male nematodes in soil were 6.5 times higher under local drought than under non-drought after 37 days. Nematodes did not survive in soil under uniform drought. Most of the eggs recovered on each date, from roots under local and non-drought, hatched within 35 days. Sixteen days of uniform drought reduced cumulative egg hatch to 51%, and almost no eggs hatched after 23 and 37 days of uniform drought. Thus, the response of T. semipenetrans to dry soil is fundamentally different, depending on whether all or part of the rhizosphere experiences drought. These data and field observations suggest that hydraulic lift via the root xylem may prolong the activity of some nematodes and possibly other rhizosphere-inhabiting organisms in dry soil.     

Field Efficacy of Verticillium lecanii,Sex Pheromone,and Pheromone Analogs as Potential Management Agents for Soybean Cyst Nematode

A soybean cyst nematode sex pheromone (vanillic acid), chemical analogs of the pheromone, and the fungus Verticillium lecanii were applied in alginate prills (340 kg/ha) to microplots and small-scale field plots as potential management agents for Heterodera glycines on soybean. In 1991 microplot tests, treatment with V. lecanii, vanillic acid, syringic acid plus V. lecanii, or vanillic acid plus V. lecanii lowered midseason cyst numbers compared with the untreated susceptible cultivar control, autoclaved V. lecanii treatment, or aldicarb treatment, At-harvest cyst numbers were lowest with V. lecanii and with vanillic acid treatments. Aldicarb treatment reduced midseason cyst numbers in 1992. There were no differences among seed yields either year. In the field trials, numbers of cysts were reduced one or both years with aldicarb, ferulic acid, syringic acid, vanillic acid, or 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzonitfile treatments, or with a resistant cultivar, compared to an untreated susceptible cultivar. Highest yields were recorded after treatment with 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzonitrile (1991), methyl vanillate (1992), and aldicarb (1992). These studies indicate that some chemical analogs of vanillic acid have potential for use in soybean cyst nematode management schemes.     

Effects of One and Two Applications of Nematicides on Nematode Populations and Soybean Yields

Yields of ''McNair 800'' soybeans, Glycine max (L.) Merr., were significantly increased with ethylene dibromide + chloropicrin, DBCP, phenamiphos, and aldicarb applied at-planting and with phenamiphos, aldicarb, and DBCP applied postplant to soil infested with Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood. Yields of ''GaSoy 17'' were significantly increased with ethylene dibromide + chloropicrin, DBCP, phenamiphos, and aldicarb applied, preplant and with DBCP, carbofuran, phenamiphos, aldicarb, and DBCP applied postplant to soil infested with Hoplolaimus columbus Sher. In several instances, preplant or at-planting treatments plus postplant treatments with the same or different chemicals were more effective than either treatment alone. Generally, the fumigants were more effective than the nonfumigants when they were applied at-planting to M. incognita-infested soil and preplant to H. columbus-infested soil. Phenamiphos, aldicarb, and DBCP were about equally effective when they were applied postplant in M. incognita-infested soil, but DBCP was more effective than carbofuran. Carbofuran, phenamiphos, aldicarb, and DBCP were about equally effective when applied postplant to H. columbus-infested soil.     

Bahiagrass,Corn, Cotton Rotations,and Pesticides for Managing Nematodes,Diseases, and Insects on Peanut

Florunner peanut was grown after 1 and 2 years of Tifton 9 bahiagrass, corn, cotton, and continuous peanut as whole-plots. Pesticide treatments aldicarb (3.4 kg a.i./ha), flutolanil (1.7 kg a.i./ha), aldicarb + flutolanil, and untreated (control) were sub-plots. Numbers of Meloidogyne arenaria second-stage juveniles in the soil and root-gall indices of peanut at harvest were consistently lower in plots treated with aldicarb and aldicarb + flutolanil than in flutolanil-treated and untreated plots. Percentages of peanut leaflets damaged by thrips and leafhoppers were consistently greater in flutolaniltreated and untreated plots than in plots treated with aldicarb or aldicarb + flutolanil but not affected by cropping sequences. Incidence of southern stem rot was moderate to high for all chemical treatments except those that included flutolanil. Stem rot loci were low in peanut following 2 years of bahiagrass, intermediate following 2 years of corn or cotton, and highest in continuous peanut. Rhizoctonia limb rot was more severe in the peanut monoculture than in peanut following 2 years of bahiagrass, corn, or cotton. Flutolanil alone or combined with aldicarb suppressed limb rot compared with aldicarb-treated and untreated plots. Peanut pod yields were 4,186 kg/ha from aldicarb + flutolanil-treated plots, 3,627 kg/ha from aldicarb-treated plots, 3,426 kg/ha from flutolanil-treated plots, and 3,056 kg/ha from untreated plots. Yields of peanut following 2 years of bahiagrass, corn, and cotton were 29% to 33% higher than yield of monocultured peanut.     

Effects of Site-specific Application of Aldicarb on Cotton in a Meloidogyne incognita-infested Field

Cotton farmers in Missouri commonly apply a single rate of aldicarb throughout the field at planting to protect their crop from Meloidogyne incognita, even though these nematodes are spatially aggregated. Our purpose was to determine the effect of site-specific application of aldicarb on cotton production in a field infested with these nematodes in 1997 and 1998. Cotton yields were collected from sites not treated with aldicarb (control), sites receiving aldicarb at the standard recommended rate of 0.58 kg a.i./ha, and sites receiving specific aldicarb rates based on the soil population densities of second-stage infective juveniles of root-knot nematode. Yields for the standard rate and site-specific rate treatments were similar and greater (P ≤ 0.05) than the control treatment. Less aldicarb was used for the site-specific than the uniform-rate treatment each year—46% less in 1997 and 61% less in 1998. Costs associated with the site-specific treatment were very high compared with the uniform-rate treatment due to a greater number of soil samples analyzed for nematodes. Site-specific application of aldicarb for root-knot nematode management in cotton may pose fewer environmental risks than the uniform-rate application of aldicarb.     

A Collagenolytic Fungus,Cunninghamella elegans,for Biological Control of Plant-parasitic Nematodes

The root-galling index of tomatoes inoculated with Meloidogyne javanica was decreased 70% when collagen was used as a soil amendment (0.1% w/w) and 90% when the amendment was supplemented with the collagenolytic fungus Cunninghamella elegans. The root-galling index was reduced 80% when the fungus was homogenized in collagen culture medium and added to soil without collagen supplement. Culture filtrates of the fungus C. elegans, grown on collagen as a single source of carbon and nitrogen, immobilized M. javanica second-stage juveniles and inhibited egg hatch. Root galling was reduced when tomato plants were inoculated with filtrate-treated juveniles. Culture filtrates reduced the motility of Rotylenchulus reniformis and Xiphinema index, but they had less effect on Anguina tritici and almost no effect on Ditylenchus dipsaci. Cunninghamella elegans had collagenolytic, elastolytic, keratinolytic, and nonspecific proteolytic activities when grown on collagen media, but only chitinolytic activity when grown on chitin media.     

Antagonists of Plant-parasitic Nematodes in Florida Citrus

In a survey of antagonists of nematodes in 27 citrus groves, each with a history of Tylenchulus semipenetrans infestation, and 17 noncitrus habitats in Florida, approximately 24 species of microbial antagonists capable of attacking vermiform stages of Radopholus citrophilus were recovered. Eleven of these microbes and a species of Pasteuria also were observed attacking vermiform stages of T. semipenetrans. Verticillium chlamydosporium, Paecilomyces lilacinus, P. marquandii, Streptomyces sp., Arthrobotrys oligospora, and Dactylella ellipsospora were found infecting T. semipenetrans egg masses. Two species of nematophagous amoebae, five species of predatory nematodes, and 29 species of nematophagous arthropods also were detected. Nematode-trapping fungi and nematophagous arthropods were common inhabitants of citrus groves with a history of citrus nematode infestation; however, obligate parasites of nematodes were rare.     

Responses of Tylenchulus semipenetrans to Citrus Fruit Removal: Implications for Carbohydrate Competition

Sixteen mature Valencia orange trees on rough lemon rootstock were selected on the basis of approximately equal, naturally occurring populations of Tylenchulus semipenetrans in soil. In March, fruit 1 cm in diameter or less were removed from eight of the trees, which were kept free of fruit for 15 months. In July, 4 months after fruit removal, fibrous root (<2 mm d) mass density of defruited trees was 51% greater and insoluble starch in fibrous roots was 24% less than on control trees with fruit. Female T. semipenetrans per gram of root were 64% more numerous on roots of control trees than on defruited trees at this time. Numbers of female nematodes per tree and of juveniles and males in soil did not differ between treatments 4 months after fruit removal. Root mass density remained higher on defruited than control trees for the remaining 13 months that the trees were studied, while nematode density in soil beneath defruited trees rapidly increased to levels proportionate to the additional root mass density. Nine months after fruit removal (December), starch concentration was 84% higher in roots of defruited trees compared to controls and remained 28% higher than in controls 15 months (May) following fruit removal. Between months 9 and 15 following fruit removal, nematode density in soil beneath defruited trees increased at a rate five times that of nematode density beneath control trees. In May, female fecundity (eggs/female) on defruited trees was 41% greater than on control trees. The data were consistent with the hypothesis that carbohydrate competition between developing citrus fruit and T. semipenetrans influences seasonal fluctuations in nematode population densities.     

Efficient Procedure for Extracting Tylenchulus semipenetrans from Citrus Roots

Investigations were undertaken to determine the suitability of sucrose and magnesium sulphate solutions and a silica colloidal suspension with centrifugation for extracting Tylenchulus semipenetrans from citrus roots. The efficiency of incubation, sodium hypochlorite, centrifugation, and maceration methods was also compared. Numbers of females recovered by centrifugation with colloidal silica were greater than those from sucrose or magnesium sulphate. Incubation, sodium hypochlorite, and centrifugation methods were satisfactory for extracting eggs, second-stage juveniles, and males, whereas the maceration-sieving method was less efficient. Combining the sodium hypochlorite method with a 15-second maceration followed by centrifugation in colloidal silica reduced the recovery of T. semipenetrans females from citrus roots.     

Development of Multi-Component Transplant Mixes for Suppression of Meloidogyne incognita on Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)

The effects of combinations of organic amendments, phytochemicals, and plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria on tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) germination, transplant growth, and infectivity of Meloidogyne incognita were evaluated. Two phytochemicals (citral and benzaldehyde), three organic amendments (pine bark, chitin, and hemicellulose), and three bacteria (Serratia marcescens, Brevibacterium iodinum, and Pseudomonas fluorescens) were assessed. Increasing rates of benzaldehyde and citral reduced nematode egg viability in vitro. Benzaldehyde was 100% efficacious as a nematicide against juveniles, whereas citral reduced juvenile viability to less than 20% at all rates tested. Benzaldehyde increased tomato seed germination and root weight, whereas citral decreased both. High rates of pine bark or chitin reduced plant growth but not seed germination, whereas low rates of chitin increased shoot length, shoot weight, and root weight; improved root condition; and reduced galling. The combination of chitin and benzaldehyde significantly improved tomato transplant growth and reduced galling. While each of the bacterial isolates contributed to increased plant growth in combination treatments, only Brevibacterium iodinum applied alone significantly improved plant growth.     

Response of Soybean in Cyst Nematode-Infested Soils at Three Soil Water Regimes

Large pot (2 years) and field experiments (1 year) were conducted to determine the response of susceptible soybean Glycine max (L.) Merr. cultivars (Essex and Hutcheson) grown in soybean-cyst-nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines-infested soils at three soil water regimes. The soil water regimes were irrigation whenever soil water potential ([psi]s) 0.30-m deep was i) -30 kPa (I-30) or ii) - 50 kPa (I-50), and iii) no irrigation. Cyst nematode levels in the pot experiment were either 0 or 20,000 second-stage juveniles (J2) per pot. The field experiment was conducted on soil naturally infested with a population of 145 to 475 cysts L⁻¹ of soil. All growth parameters studied were drastically affected in the presence of SCN under nonirrigated conditions for the large pot tests; however, SCN did not influence growth parameters in the field experiment. Seed yield was lowest in the no irrigation treatment when all treatments were compared in both the pot and field experiments. The infested no irrigation treatment in the pot experiment had the lowest yield among soil water treatments.     

Biological Control of Soil Pests by Mixed Application of Entomopathogenic and Fungivorous Nematodes

In greenhouse experiments, massive application of the fungivorous nematode, Aphelenchus avenae, in summer at 26-33 C (1 x l0⁵ nematodes/500 cm³ autoclaved soil) or in autumn at 18-23 C (5 x 10⁴ nematodes/500 cm³ autoclaved soil) suppressed pre-emergence damping-off of cucumber seedlings due to Rhizoctonia solani AG-4 by 67% or 87%, respectively. Application of 2 x l0⁵ A. avenae to sterilized soil infested with R. solani caused leafminer-like symptom on the cotyledons, which did not occur in mixed inoculations with the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae. When 1 x 10⁶ A. avenae were applied 3 days before inoculation with 100 Meloidogyne incognita juveniles, gall numbers on tomato roots were reduced to 50% of controls. Gall numbers also were suppressed by S. carpocapsae (str. All). Reduction in gall numbers was no greater with mixed application of A. avenae and S. carpocapsae than with application of single species, even though twice the number of nematodes were added in the former case. These nematodes were positively attracted to tomato root tips. Aphelenchus avenae suppressed infection of the turnip moth, Agrotis segetum, but not the common cutworm, Spodoptera litura, by S. carpocapsae.